The role of urban greenspace in children’s reward and punishment sensitivity

Figures & data

Table 1. Variable distribution by neighbourhood greenspace in the analytic sample (unweighted data)

			Low neighbourhood greenspace (bottom decile) n = 753 (15%)	High neighbourhood greenspace (other deciles) n = 4259 (85%)	p-value
Continuous variables, M(SD)
CGT	Risk taking		0.55 (0.16)	0.52 (0.17)	<.001
	Risk adjustment		0.68 (1.11)	0.69 (1.04)	0.73
	Quality of decision-making		0.82 (0.17)	0.80 (0.17)	0.03
	Delay aversion		0.30 (0.26)	0.28 (0.26)	0.04
	Deliberation time (milliseconds)		3243.30 (1153.92)	3347.59 (1452.91)	0.06
	Internalising problems		3.02 (2.89)	3.14 (3.11)	0.36
	Externalising problems		4.17 (3.39)	4.45 (3.51)	0.05
Exact age			11.13 (0.34)	11.17 (0.33)	<.001
IQ			99.44 (15.62)	101.46 (14.12)	<.001
Residential mobility (number of address changes at the five sweeps)			0.34 (0.57)	0.68 (0.78)	<.001
Categorical variables, n (%)
Female			372 (49%)	2105 (49%)	0.99
Pubertal signs			417 (63%)	2522 (62%)	0.65
Stratum		England—Advantaged	190 (25%)	1398 (33%)	<.001
		England—Disadvantaged	191 (25%)	1111 (26%)
		England—Ethnic	289 (38%)	259 (6%)
		Wales—Advantaged	0 (0%)	237 (6%)
		Wales—Disadvantaged	19 (3%)	730 (17%)
		Scotland—Advantaged	49 (7%)	198 (5%)
		Scotland—Disadvantaged	15 (2%)	309 (7%)
		Northern Ireland—Advantaged	0 (0%)	3 (0%)
		Northern Ireland—Disadvantaged	0 (0%)	14 (0%)
Ethnicity		White	425 (56%)	3768 (88%)	<.001
		Mixed	32 (4%)	122 (3%)
		Indian	63 (4%)	110 (3%)
		Pakistani and Bangladeshi	119 (16%)	112 (3%)
		Black or Black British	81 (11%)	99 (2%)
		Other ethnic group	33 (4%)	48 (1%)
Mother is university-educated			170 (23%)	821 (19%)	0.04
Below the poverty line			203 (27%)	697 (16%)	<.001

Note. p-values of t-tests for continuous variables and chi-square tests for categorical variables.

Table 2. Multiple linear regression model for risk-taking (minimally adjusted model)

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace: bottom decile	0.018	0.008	2.14	0.033	[0.001, 0.035]
Age	0.004	0.008	0.53	0.596	[−0.012, 0.020]
Female	−0.093	0.006	−16.53	0.000	[−0.104, −0.082]
Stratum (ref England—Advantaged)
England-Disadvantaged	0.007	0.008	0.88	0.377	[−0.009, 0.024]
England-Ethnic	0.022	0.013	1.69	0.092	[−0.004, 0.048]
Wales-Advantaged	−0.014	0.014	−1.03	0.302	[−0.042, 0.013]
Wales-Disadvantaged	−0.021	0.011	−1.92	0.057	[−0.042, 0.001]
Scotland-Advantaged	0.006	0.015	0.41	0.679	[−0.024, 0.036]
Scotland-Disadvantaged	−0.002	0.014	−0.12	0.902	[−0.030, 0.026]
Northern Ireland-Advantaged	−0.133	0.101	−1.31	0.191	[−0.332, 0.067]
Northern Ireland-Disadvantaged	0.136	0.032	4.28	0.000	[0.073, 0.198]
Constant	0.617	0.091	6.77	0.000	[0.438, 0.797]

Table 3. Multiple linear regression model for risk-taking (excluding externalising/internalising problems)

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace: bottom decile	0.017	0.008	2.00	0.047	[0.000, 0.033]
Residential mobility	0.000	0.004	0.12	0.906	[−0.007, 0.008]
Age	0.001	0.008	0.09	0.927	[−0.015, 0.017]
Female	−0.091	0.006	−14.48	0.000	[−0.103, −0.079]
Below the poverty line	0.010	0.008	1.18	0.240	[−0.006, 0.026]
Mother is university—educated	−0.005	0.006	−0.73	0.468	[−0.017, 0.008]
Pubertal signs	−0.002	0.007	−0.40	0.689	[−0.017, 0.011]
IQ	−0.001	0.000	−2.33	0.021	[−0.001, −0.000]
Stratum (ref England—Advantaged)
England-Disadvantaged	0.002	0.008	0.28	0.778	[−0.014, 0.019]
England-Ethnic	0.002	0.014	0.13	0.896	[−0.026, 0.029]
Wales-Advantaged	−0.014	0.014	−0.96	0.338	[−0.041, 0.014]
Wales-Disadvantaged	−0.025	0.011	−2.33	0.021	[−0.047, −0.004]
Scotland-Advantaged	0.007	0.015	0.45	0.655	[−0.023, 0.037]
Scotland-Disadvantaged	−0.004	0.014	−0.31	0.757	[−0.033, 0.024]
Northern Ireland-Advantaged	−0.138	0.094	−1.47	0.143	[−0.323, 0.047]
Northern Ireland-Disadvantaged	0.131	0.032	4.05	0.000	[0.067, 0.195]
Ethnicity (ref ‘White’)
Mixed	0.019	0.016	1.20	0.232	[−0.012, 0.050]
Indian	0.022	0.016	1.39	0.167	[−0.009, 0.053]
Pakistani/Bangladeshi	0.019	0.014	1.36	0.176	[−0.009, 0.046]
Black	0.007	0.015	0.46	0.648	[−0.023, 0.037]
Other	0.014	0.016	0.88	0.382	[−0.018, 0.046]
Constant	0.709	0.096	7.40	0.000	[0.520, 0.897]

Table 4. Fully adjusted multiple linear regression model for risk-taking (including externalising/internalising problems)

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace: bottom decile	0.018	0.008	2.24	0.026	[0.002, 0.034]
Age	0.003	0.008	0.43	0.669	[−0.012, 0.019]
Residential mobility	−0.001	0.004	−0.28	0.777	[−0.009, 0.006]
Female	−0.084	0.006	−13.32	0.000	[−0.096, −0.072]
Below the poverty line	0.003	0.008	0.34	0.734	[−0.013, 0.019]
Mother is university-educated	−0.000	0.006	−0.06	0.955	[−0.013, 0.012]
Pubertal signs	−0.003	0.007	−0.39	0.700	[−0.016, 0.011]
IQ	−0.000	0.000	−1.51	0.132	[−0.001, 0.000]
Stratum (ref England-Advantaged)
England-Disadvantaged	0.002	0.008	0.20	0.839	[−0.015, 0.018]
England-Ethnic	0.001	0.014	0.08	0.933	[−0.026, 0.028]
Wales-Advantaged	−0.014	0.014	−1.04	0.300	[−0.041, 0.013]
Wales-Disadvantaged	−0.025	0.011	−2.37	0.018	[−0.046, −0.004]
Scotland-Advantaged	0.007	0.015	0.43	0.668	[−0.024, 0.037]
Scotland-Disadvantaged	−0.004	0.014	−0.25	0.805	[−0.031, 0.024]
Northern Ireland-Advantaged	−0.110	0.100	−1.11	0.270	[−0.307, 0.086]
Northern Ireland-Disadvantaged	0.131	0.036	3.67	0.000	[0.061, 0.201]
Ethnicity (ref ‘White’)
Mixed	0.020	0.016	1.28	0.202	[−0.011, 0.051]
Indian	0.025	0.016	1.61	0.109	[−0.006, 0.057]
Pakistani/Bangladeshi	0.027	0.014	1.91	0.057	[−0.001, 0.055]
Black	0.012	0.016	0.80	0.422	[−0.018, 0.043]
Other	0.019	0.016	1.18	0.240	[−0.013, 0.052]
Externalising problems	0.006	0.001	6.74	0.000	[0.005, 0.008]
Internalising problems	−0.003	0.001	−2.91	0.004	[−0.005, −0.001]
Constant	0.630	0.095	6.65	0.000	[0.444, 0.817]

Table 5. Risk-taking by greenspace decile in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153) (weighted data)

	Risk taking	N	Standard deviation
1—least green (most deprived of greenspace) decile	0.549	753	0.162
2	0.535	506	0.161
3	0.537	342	0.177
4	0.527	485	0.167
5	0.513	427	0.169
6	0.523	373	0.152
7	0.515	123	0.164
8	0.504	111	0.148
9	0.580	30	0.198
10—most green decile	0.570	3	0.102

Figure 1. Risk-taking by greenspace decile in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153) (weighted data).

Table 6. Risk-taking by greenspace quintile in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153) (weighted data)

	Risk taking	N	Standard deviation
1—least green (most deprived of greenspace) quintile	0.549	753	0.162
2	0.535	848	0.168
3	0.527	485	0.167
4	0.517	800	0.162
5—most green quintile	0.518	267	0.162

Figure 2. Risk-taking by greenspace quintile in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153) (weighted data).

Table 7. Risk-taking by greenspace (in quintiles) in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153); complete cases

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace in quintiles	−0.009	0.003	−2.88	0.004	[−0.015, −0.003]
Constant	0.556	0.009	61.03	0.000	[0.538, 0.574]

Table 8. Risk-taking by greenspace (in quintiles) in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153); minimally adjusted model; complete cases

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace in quintiles	−0.006	0.003	−1.70	0.090	[−0.012, 0.001]
Age	−0.001	0.011	0.12	0.906	[−0.024, 0.021]
Female	−0.091	0.006	−14.69	0.000	[−0.103, −0.079]
Stratum (ref England—Advantaged)
England-Disadvantaged	0.004	0.011	0.37	0.709	[−0.018, 0.026]
England-Ethnic	0.039	0.014	2.86	0.005	[−0.012, 0.065]
Wales-Advantaged	−0.007	0.019	−0.04	0.970	[−0.037, 0.036]
Wales-Disadvantaged	−0.012	0.014	−0.85	0.397	[−0.039, 0.015]
Scotland-Advantaged	0.026	0.016	1.57	0.119	[−0.007, 0.058]
Scotland-Disadvantaged	−0.002	0.016	−0.16	0.875	[−0.033, 0.028]
Constant	0.694	0.127	5.47	0.000	[0.444, 0.944]

Table 9. Risk-taking by quintile of greenspace (greenest quintile as reference) in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153); complete cases

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace (most green quintile as reference)
Quintile 4	−0.001	0.018	−0.07	0.942	[−0.036, 0.033]
Quintile 3	0.009	0.022	−0.42	0.677	[−0.034, 0.052]
Quintile 2	0.017	0.018	0.94	0.346	[−0.019, 0.054]
Quintile 1 (least green)	0.031	0.017	1.79	0.075	[−0.003, 0.065]
Constant	0.518	0.016	32.31	0.000	[0.487, 0.550]

Table 10. Risk-taking by quintile of greenspace (greenest quintile as reference) in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153); minimally adjusted model; complete cases

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace (most green quintile as reference)
Quintile 4	−0.008	0.016	−0.52	0.603	[−0.040, 0.023]
Quintile 3	0.002	0.021	−0.10	0.919	[−0.043, 0.039]
Quintile 2	0.004	0.017	0.23	0.819	[−0.029, 0.037]
Quintile 1 (least green)	0.016	0.017	0.97	0.334	[−0.017, 0.049]
Age	−0.002	0.011	−0.14	0.892	[−0.024, 0.021]
Female	−0.091	0.006	−14.60	0.000	[−0.104, −0.079]
Stratum (ref England—Advantaged)
England-Disadvantaged	0.004	0.011	0.37	0.714	[−0.018, 0.026]
England-Ethnic	0.036	0.013	2.65	0.009	[0.009, 0.062]
Wales-Advantaged	−0.001	0.019	−0.07	0.942	[−0.038, 0.036]
Wales-Disadvantaged	−0.011	0.014	−0.75	0.457	[−0.039, 0.018]
Scotland-Advantaged	0.025	0.017	1.47	0.142	[−0.009, 0.059]
Scotland-Disadvantaged	−0.002	0.017	−0.17	0.868	[−0.036, 0.031]
Constant	0.679	0.128	5.30	0.000	[0.427, 0.932]

Table 11. Risk-taking by quintile of greenspace (least green quintile as reference) in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153); complete cases

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace (least green quintile as reference)
Quintile 2	−0.014	0.011	−1.34	0.180	[−0.033, 0.063]
Quintile 3	−0.022	0.016	−1.34	0.182	[−0.054, 0.010]
Quintile 4	−0.032	0.011	−3.06	0.002	[−0.053, −0.011]
Quintile 5 (most green)	−0.031	0.017	−1.79	0.075	[−0.065, 0.003]
Constant	0.549	0.007	83.67	0.000	[0.536, 0.562]

Table 12. Risk-taking by quintile of greenspace (least green quintile as reference) in the ‘stayers’ sample (N = 3,153); minimally adjusted model; complete cases

	Coef.	Std. Err.	t	P>|t|	[95% CI]
Greenspace (least green quintile as reference)
Quintile 2	−0.012	0.011	−1.09	0.276	[−0.034, 0.010]
Quintile 3	−0.018	0.017	−1.04	0.297	[−0.052, 0.016]
Quintile 4	−0.024	0.012	−2.07	0.039	[−0.048, −0.001]
Quintile 5 (most green)	−0.016	0.017	−0.97	0.334	[−0.049, 0.017]
Age	−0.002	0.011	−0.14	0.892	[−0.024, 0.021]
Female	−0.091	0.006	−14.60	0.000	[−0.104, −0.079]
Stratum (ref England—Advantaged)
England-Disadvantaged	0.004	0.011	0.37	0.714	[−0.018, 0.026]
England-Ethnic	0.036	0.013	2.65	0.009	[0.009, 0.062]
Wales-Advantaged	−0.001	0.019	−0.07	0.942	[−0.038, 0.036]
Wales-Disadvantaged	−0.011	0.014	−0.75	0.457	[−0.039, 0.018]
Scotland-Advantaged	0.025	0.017	1.47	0.142	[−0.009, 0.059]
Scotland-Disadvantaged	−0.003	0.017	−0.17	0.868	[−0.036, 0.031]
Constant	0.695	0.128	5.45	0.000	[0.444, 0.947]