The development and validation of a scale for measuring L2 learning experience: the underappreciated element of the L2 motivational self system

Figures & data

Table 1. Demographics of the participants.

	Sample 1 (n = 294)		Sample 2 (n = 304)
Type	English major	LOTE major	English major	LOTE major
	208 (70.7%)	86 (29.3%)	221 (72.7%)	83 (27.3%)
Age	Mean = 20.84 (SD = 2.04)		Mean = 20.14 (SD = 1.54)
Gender	Male = 17 (5.8%)		Male = 46 (15.1%)
	Female = 258 (87.8%)		Female = 238 (78.3%)
	Prefer not to say = 19 (6.4%)		Prefer not to say = 20 (6.6%)
Year	Year 1 = 33 (11.2%)		Year 1 = 60 (19.7%)
	Year 2 = 30 (10.2%)		Year 2 = 51 (16.8%)
	Year 3 = 91 (31.0%)		Year 3 = 115 (37.8%)
	Year 4 = 140 (47.6%)		Year 4 = 78 (25.7%)
LOTE	Japanese = 131 (44.6%)		Japanese = 117 (38.5%)
	French = 89 (30.3%)		French = 64 (21.1%)
	German = 21 (7.1%)		German = 47 (15.5%)
	Spanish = 7 (2.4%)		Spanish = 39 (12.8%)
	Russian = 16 (5.4%)		Russian = 11 (3.6%)
	Korean = 10 (3.4%)		Korean = 5 (1.6%)
	Other language = 20 (6.8%)		Other language = 21 (6.9%)

Figure 1. The preliminary model of language learning experience.

Table 2. Results of exploratory factor analysis: Factors, items, and loadings for 38 items.

Factor 1	Factor 2	Factor 3	Factor 4	Factor 5	Factor 6	Factor 7
4c 0.750	5f 0.843	6a 0.848	6f 0.736	7b 0.818	8c 0.863	9f 0.724
4d 0.709	5e 0.785	6c 0.803	6h 0.711	7a 0.779	8h 0.841	9e 0.695
4i 0.708	5g 0.769	6b 0.735	6i 0.682	7c 0.764	8d 0.778	9d 0.680
4e 0.695	5b 0.712		6e 0.617	7d 0.749	8j 0.545	9c 0.661
4b 0.669	5a 0.707			7e 0.701		9g 0.654
4a 0.618	5i 0.701					9b 0.581
4h 0.579	5d 0.638
4g 0.568
4f 0.530

Table 3. Total variance explained (seven-factor extraction).

Total variance explained
	Initial eigenvalue			Extraction sum of the squared loading
Factor	Total	% of variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of variance	Cumulative %
1	14.814	41.614	41.614	14.814	41.614	41.614
2	3.847	10.123	41.738	3.847	10.123	41.738
3	2.426	6.384	48.122	2.426	6.384	48.122
4	1.494	4.194	62.314	1.494	4.194	62.314
5	1.449	3.840	66.144	1.449	3.840	66.144
6	1.324	3.484	69.641	1.324	3.484	69.641
7	1.030	2.709	72.340	1.030	2.709	72.340

Note: Factor 1 = Positive emotions; Factor 2 = Negative emotions; Factor 3 = Behavioural engagement; Factor 4 = Cognitive engagement; Factor 5 = Relationships; Factor 6 = Meaning; Factor 7 = Accomplishment.

Table 4. The seven factors extracted, the number of items, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients.

	Item	Number of the item	Cronbach’s alpha
1. Positive emotions	4c; 4i; 4d; 4e; 4b; 4a; 4h, 4g, 4f	9	0.938
2. Negative emotions	5f; 5e; 5 g; 5b; 5a; 5i; 5d	7	0.888
3. Behavioural engagement	6a; 6b; 6c	3	0.911
4. Cognitive engagement	6f; 6h; 6i; 6e	4	0.848
5. Relationships	7b; 7a; 7c; 7d; 7e	5	0.918
6. Meaning	8c; 8h; 8d; 8j	4	0.870
7. Accomplishment	9f; 9e; 9d; 9c; 9g; 9b	6	0.891
Overall		38	0.910

Figure 2. Graphical representation of the six-factor LLES and factor loadings. All modelled correlations and path coefficients are significant (p < .001).

Table 5. Results of the two-round confirmatory factory analysis (N = 304).

	CMIN/DF	CFI	TLI	SRMR	RMSEA	90% CI
Benchmark	< 3	> 0.90	> 0.90	< 0.08	< 0.08
38-item	2.596	0.861	0.848	0.073	0.073	0.068–0.077
28-item	1.925	0.946	0.939	0.054	0.055	0.049–0.062

Table 6. The convergent validity of each sub-scale.

		Convergent validity
Sub-scale	Item	λ	p	AVE	CR
Positive emotions	4a	0.890	0.00	0.639	0.913
	4b	0.929	0.00
	4c	0.790	0.00
	4d	0.709	0.00
	4g	0.792	0.00
	4h	0.650	0.00
Negative emotions	5a	0.844	0.00	0.638	0.898
	5b	0.783	0.00
	5d	0.855	0.00
	5e	0.739	0.00
	5f	0.765	0.00
Engagement	6a	0.935	0.00	0.796	0.921
	6b	0.875	0.00
	6c	0.864	0.00
Relationships	7a	0.936	0.00	0.669	0.888
	7c	0.907	0.00
	7d	0.687	0.00
	7e	0.710	0.00
Meaning	8c	0.890	0.00	0.617	0.863
	8d	0.891	0.00
	8h	0.666	0.00
	8j	0.662	0.00
Accomplishment	9b	0.765	0.00	0.637	0.913
	9c	0.785	0.00
	9d	0.814	0.00
	9e	0.830	0.00
	9f	0.766	0.00
	9g	0.825	0.00

Table 7. The discriminant validity and inter-construct correlations of each sub-scale

Scale	1	2	3	4	5	6	AVE
Factor 1	0.799						0.639
Factor 2	−0.477***	0.799					0.638
Factor 3	0.284***	−0.337***	0.892				0.796
Factor 4	0.298***	−0.245***	0.376***	0.818			0.669
Factor 5	0.365***	−0.220***	0.235***	0.243***	0.785		0.617
Factor 6	0.390***	−0.322***	0.347***	0.344***	0.223***	0.798	0.637

Note: Values in the diagonal are the square roots of their respective average variance extracted.

Factor 1 = Positive emotions; Factor 2 = Negative emotions; Factor 3 = Engagement; Factor 4 = Relationships; Factor 5 = Meaning; Factor 6 = Accomplishment

***p < .001

Table

Subscales	《二语学习经历量表》中文版	The L2 learning experience scale (LLES)
Positive emotion	1. 对我来说学习二语很享受也很有趣	1. Learning a L2 is enjoyable and fun for me
	2. 我学习二语能获得满足感	2. I have a sense of fulfilment when learning a L2
	3. 当我掌握该语言知识时，我会有成就感	3. I have a sense of achievement when I master the language skill
	4. 与该语言相关的文化很吸引我	4. The culture behind the language holds great appeal for me
	5. 我对二语学习持乐观态度	5. I hold favourable attitudes towards learning a L2
	6. 我为近期在二语学习上取得的进步感到骄傲	6. I feel proud because I have made progress in L2 learning
Negative emotion	1. 学习二语很累并且让人焦虑	1. It is exhausting and anxious to learn a L2
	2. 因为缺乏明确的二语学习目标，我感到沮丧	2. I become frustrated in L2 learning due to a lack of clear goals
	3. 我对二语学习没有信心	3. I feel diffident when learning the L2
	4.太多的测试和考试让我紧张	4. Too many tests and assessments make me feel stressful
	5. 我很沮丧因为看不到自己的进步	5. The feeling of making no progress makes me feel frustrated
Engagement	1. 我上课时仔细听讲积极参与	1. I am actively involved in the language class
	2. 我努力学习新的知识	2. I try hard to learn new knowledge in the class
	3. 我上课时注意力很集中	3. I stay focused in the classroom
Relationship	1. 当我学习二语的时候能获得老师的帮助	1. I receive help and support from my teachers when learn the L2
	2. 老师对我们二语学习持鼓励态度	2. The teacher is encouraging in our L2 learning process
	3. 老师自身的二语学习经历（留学）给我留下深刻印象	3. Teacher’s L2 learning history (overseas experience) leaves me a deep impression
	4. 因为我和老师关系很融洽，所以很有动力	4. The positive teacher-student interaction is motivating in learning the language
Meaning	1. 学习二语能给我在求职市场中带来优势	1. L2 skills offer a competitive edge in a global job market
	2. 学习二语能给我带来很多潜在的机会和可能性	2. Learning a L2 brings me more opportunities and possibilities
	3. 语言能力可以帮助我找到更好的工作	3. Language proficiency helps me land a better job
	4. 掌握一门二语很酷，可以帮助自己塑造一个好的形象	4. Mastering a L2 is cool and helps me make a good impression
Accomplishment	1. 我可以完成自己制定的有关二语学习的目标	1. I often achieve the important goals I have set for myself in L2 learning
	2. 我可以完成别人制定的有关学习二语的目标	2. I often achieve the important goals that others have set for me in L2 learning
	3. 我能在二语考试中取得好的成绩	3. I get good grades in my L2 proficiency exams
	4. 我能够完成我的二语学习任务	4. I am able to handle my L2 learning tasks
	5. 我在学习其他语言方面表现很好	5. I am proficient in another foreign language
	6. 我相信我有学习好二语的能力	6. I believe that I have the ability to master a L2