Homelessness on public transit: A review of problems and responses

Figures & data

Figure 1. Flow Chart of the Literature Search Process.

Table 1. Extent and Character of Homelessness in Transit and Transport Environments.

Author (Date)	Location	Method	Key Findings
Nichols and Cázares (2011)	Santa Clara County, CA	Survey (n=49) of people experiencing homelessness riding overnight buses	- ⅔ of respondents used an overnight bus as their only shelter or one of their usual shelters - Dissatisfaction with shelter rules and safety concerns were major reasons for sleeping on a bus
Bassett et al. (2013)	U.S. and Canada	Survey (n=69) of staff from state DOTs	- 70% reported someone in their agencies having encountered people experiencing homelessness - 40% of agencies regarded homelessness on DOT-controlled right-of-way as an operational challenge
Boyle (2016)	U.S.	Survey (n=55) of transit agencies	- Most agencies regarded homelessness on their systems as a challenge - Larger agencies tended to characterise homelessness as a major challenge and smaller ones as a minor challenge
Bell et al. (2018)	U.S.	Survey (n=49) of transit agencies	- Over ⅔ of agencies believed they have a responsibility to address homelessness on their systems
Crisis (2018)	U.K.	Extrapolation based on government homeless counts and supplementary sources	- Just under 50% of U.K. unsheltered individuals sleep in cars, tents, or public transit - Their number has risen consistently since 2010
Wilder Research (2019)	Minneapolis-St. Paul, MN	Surveys (n=4,329) of people experiencing homelessness	- Those experiencing homelessness on transit were more likely to be structurally disadvantaged along many axes and chronically homeless than other unhoused individuals
Loukaitou-Sideris et al. (2020) Loukaitou-Sideris et al. (2021)	U.S. and Canada	Survey (n=115 agencies; 142 staff people) of transit agencies Case studies (n=10 agencies; 26 staff people); interviews with staff at select agencies and their partnering organisations	- Homelessness is broadly present across transit agencies, though concentrated on larger operators and central hotspots, and has reportedly worsened on transit during the pandemic. The perceived challenges of homelessness are deepening, and data, dedicated funding, and staff are rare. - A number of responses, including external partnerships and outreach and service provision, are growing, and agencies are adapting quickly to the pandemic.

Table 2. Mobility and Transit Use Patterns of People Experiencing Homelessness.

Author (Date)	Location	Method	Key Findings
Murphy (2019)	U.S.	Literature review	- Public transit and walking are the most common means of transportation among people experiencing homelessness - Medical services, social visits, food banks, churches, and job searches are the most common travel purposes for people experiencing homelessness
Jocoy and Del Casino (2008, 2010)	Long Beach, CA	Focus group interviews with and surveys (n=118) of individuals experiencing homelessness	- Over half of respondents used transit daily - Transit and shuttle services provided by social service agencies were the primary modes of travel for unhoused people - Most respondents used transit for trips to healthcare, jobs or job searches, and social services
Hui and Habib (2017, november 14)	Toronto, Canada	Interviews (n=159) with individuals experiencing homelessness	- Most interviewees walked to grocery stores, but used transit for trips to a food bank, part-time work, and social visits - Those holding a bus pass and those without alternative means of mobility tended to ride transit more often

Table 3. Transit Agencies’ Responses to Homelessness.

Challenges	Punitive Responses	Outreach Responses
- Lack of funding and other resources - Extent of the issue; balancing customer concerns with humane actions - Need for staff training and support from city and county governments	- Enforcing anti-homeless laws, often through partnership with local law enforcement agencies - Removal or displacement of people experiencing homelessness	- Outreach through partnerships with social service or nonprofit agencies - Discounted fare programmes - Providing special services for unsheltered people during extreme weather - Staff training programmes on interacting with people experiencing homelessness

Table 4. Punitive Responses to Homelessness

Legislation	- Ordinances against: Camping Loitering Panhandling
Policy	- End-of-route debarkation - Banning the carrying of large items/bags on vehicles
Policing	- Sweeps - Move along orders - Citations and fines - Confiscation of property - Arrest - Involuntary psychiatric commitment
Design	- Hostile architecture: Seat dividers Landscaping Spikes and metal studs

Table 5. Outreach and Supportive Responses to Homelessness

Type of Strategy	Purpose/Benefits
Partnerships - With shelters and nonprofits - With other public agencies - With police - With BIDs	- Better outreach to people experiencing homelessness - Connection to social services and housing - Expansion of resources - Diverse expertise
Staff training	- Crisis intervention - More sensitive interactions
Transportation to shelters	- Enhanced mobility
Free or discounted tickets	- Enhanced mobility
Hub of services	- Concentration of free services (e.g. restrooms, showers, laundry, medical and dental services) at specific central hubs

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Bassett, E., Tremoulet, A., & Moe, A. (2013, July). Relocation of Homeless People from ODOT Rights-of-way (OTREC-RR-12-14). Oregon Transportation Research and Education Consortium. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.15760/trec.67

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Boyle, D. (2016, March 14). Transit Agency Practices in Interacting with People who Are Homeless (TCRP Synthesis 121). Transportation Research Board. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17226/23450

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