The Smarthubs integration ladder: a conceptual model for the categorisation of shared mobility hubs

Figures & data

Table 1. References reviewed, listed by source type and specific use in the review.

Reference	Source Type	Definition	Physical Integration	Digital integration	Democratic integration
Advier/SVP (2021)	Grey (report)	x	x	(x)	(x)
Advier (2021)	Grey (report)		x	x	x
Amoroso et al. (2012)	Conference paper	x
Anderson et al. (2017)	Journal paper	x	x
Ansell and Gash (2008)	Journal paper				x
Ansell and Torfing (2021)	Book				x
Aono (2019)	Grey (report)	x	x	(x)
Arnstein (1969)	Journal paper				x
Blad et al. (2022)	Journal paper	x	x
Bolger et al. (1992)	Journal paper		x
Bösehans et al. (2021)	Journal paper	x
Chidambara (2019)	Journal paper		x
Coenegrachts et al. (2021)	Journal paper	x	x
CoMoUK (2019)	Grey (report)	x	x	x	(x)
Conticelli et al. (2021)	Journal paper		x
Crow (2021)	Grey (report)	x
Cui (2021)	Master’s thesis		x		(x)
DELVA et al. (2019)	Grey (report)	x
Dryzek, 2000	Book (scientific)				x
Durand et al. (2021a)	Journal paper			x
Durand et al. (2021b)	Grey (report)			x
Emerson et al. (2012)	Journal paper				x
Fallast and Huber (2015)	Grey (report)	x
Fischer, 2012	Book (scientific)				x
Frank et al. (2021)	Journal paper	x	x
Garde et al. (2014)	Conference paper	x	x
Gemeente Utrecht (2021)	Grey (report)	x	–		–
GoSEStran (2020)	Grey (report)	x	x		x
Goudappel et al. (2021)	Grey (report)	x
Graf and Fuchs (2015)	Book chapter				x
Graf et al. (2018)	Book chapter				x
Hasan and Al-Khafaji (2021)	Conference paper		x
Heinelt (2010)	Book				x
Horjus et al. (2022)	Journal paper			x
IGES Institut (2021)	Grey (report)	x	x
Indrakesuma (2018)	Master’s thesis		x
Jansen et al. (2015)	book section	x		x
Jittrapirom et al. (2017)	Journal paper			x
Karner et al. (2020)	Journal paper				x
Kast (2021)	Grey (report)	x	x		x
Luo et al. (2021)	Journal paper		x
Mather (1983)	Journal paper		x
Meadowcroft (2004)	Book chapter				x
Metrolinx (2011)	Grey (report)	x	x
Miramontes (2018)	Doctoral thesis	x		x
Mobiliteitsalliantie (2020)	Grey (report)	x	x
Monzón and Ciommo (2016)	Book		x
Mouw (2020)	Bachelor thesis	x	x
Muller et al. (2021)	Journal paper			x
Nag et al. (2019)	Grey (report)		x
Natuur & Milieu (2020)	Grey (report)	x	x
Navrátilová et al. (2021)	Conference paper	x	x
Newig and Fritsch (2009)	Journal paper				x
Pappers et al. (2020)	Book chapter				x
Pfertner (2017)	Master’s thesis	(x)	x	(x)
Preston (2012)	Grey (report)		x
Rehme et al. (2018)	Book chapter	x
Rongen et al. (2022)	Journal paper	x	x
Rube et al. (2020)	Grey (report)	x	x	x
Rupprecht Consult (2019)	Grey (report)				x
Schelling (2021)	Master’s thesis	x	x
Schemel et al. (2020)	Grey (report)	x	x
Schneidemesser et al. (2020)	Journal paper				x
SUMC (2019)	Grey (report)	(x)	x
Silva and Uhlmann (2021)	Journal paper	(x)	x
Smith (2009)	Book (scientific)				x
Sochor et al. (2018)	Journal paper			x
Tavassoli and Tamannaei (2020)	Journal paper		x
Urban Design Studio (2016)	Grey (report)	x	x
van Gils (2019)	Grey (report)	x
Witte et al. (2021)	Grey (report)	x
Wright and Hook (2007)	Grey (report)		x
Wüstenhagen et al. (2007)	Journal paper				x
Zientek et al. (2018)	Grey (report)	x
Zukunftsnetz Mobilität NRW (2022)	Grey (report)	x

Note: x: contains information used in the review; (x): contains limited information that is taken into account in the review.

Table 2. Shared mobility hub characteristics used in the literature.

	Public Transport	Shared Mobility included	Multiple modes	Transfer between modes	Non-mobility related facilities	Physical integration	Digital integration	Democratic integration
Advier/SVP (2021)	(x)	x	x	x	(x)	x	(x)	-
Amoroso et al. (2012)	-	-	x	x	-	-	-	-
Anderson et al. (2017)	x	x	x	x	-	-	-	-
Aono (2019)	(x)	x	x	x	-	x	-	-
Bösehans et al. (2021)	-	x	x	-	-	-	-	-
Blad et al. (2022)	x	x	x	x	(x)	x	-	-
Coenegrachts et al. (2021)	-	x	x		-	-	-	-
CoMoUK (2019)	(x)	x	x	x	x	x	x	-
Crow (2021)	-	-	x	x	x	-	-	-
DELVA et al. (2019)	-	-	x		(x)	-	-	-
Fallast and Huber (2015)	-	-	x	x	-	-	-	-
Frank et al. (2021)	x	x	x	x	x	x	-	-
Garde et al. (2014)	x	-	x	x	-	x	-	-
Gemeente Utrecht (2021)	-	x	x	x	x	-	-	-
GoSEStran (2020)	-	-	x	-	x	x	-	x
Goudappel et al. (2021)	-		x	x	(x)	-	-	-
IGES Institut (2021)	x	x	x		-	x	-	-
Jansen et al. (2015)	x	-	x	x	-	-	x	-
Kast (2021)	x	x	x	x	-	-	x	x
Metrolinx (2011)	x		-	x	-	x	-	-
Miramontes (2018)	x	x	x	x	-	-	x	-
Mobiliteitsalliantie (2020)	-	-	-	x	-	x	-	-
Mouw (2020)	(x)	x	x	-	-	x	-	-
Natuur & Milieu (2020)	(x)		x	x	x	x	-	-
Navrátilová et al. (2021)	x	(x)	x	x	-	x	-	-
Rehme et al. (2018)	-	-	x	x	-	-	-	-
Reisviahub.nl (2021)	(x)	(x)	x	x	x	-	-	x
Rongen et al. (2022)	-/x	x	x	x	-	-/x	x
Rube et al. (2020)	-/x	x	x	x	-	x	-	-
Schelling (2021)	-	x	x	-	x	x	-	-
Schemel et al. (2020)	-	-	x	x	-	-	-	-
Urban Design Studio (2016)	x	x	x	x	(x)	x	-	-
van Gils (2019)	(x)	x	x	x	-	-	-	-
Witte et al. (2021)	-	-	x	x	x	-	-	-
Zientek et al. (2018)	-	-	x	x	-	-	-	-
Zukunftsnetz Mobilität NRW (2022)	-	-	x	x	-	x	-	-

Note: x: explicitly mentioned in the definition/essential elements; (x): walking distance to PT; other characteristics: optional element; (-/x) score depends on the type of hub.

Table 3. Summary of physical integration factors of mobility hubs.

Characteristics	Factors		Source
I. Spatial Factors	Population density	High population density	A, D, E, J, N, O, Q, R, W, Z
		High number of amenities	C, I, J, K, L, M, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, Y, AA, AB
		University campuses, schools, and the hospitals	F, Q, R
		Tourist attractions	F, Q, R
		Public gathering spaces	C, J, K
	Land-use	Central areas	C, G, H, I, V, W, AC
		Mixed-use development	C, D, E, K
		Residential areas with low public transport coverage	G, H, I, N, O, R, W
	Transport infrastructure	High-frequency (major) transit service.	D, E, G, H, I, O, S, V, W
		Cycling and pedestrian infrastructure	E, F, H, K, L, P, R, S, T, V, Y
II. Placement of different modes of transport in the vicinity of each other	Reduction of conflicts	Avoid conflict between modes	C, D, E, F, G, J, K, L, P, S, W, AC
		Pedestrians first	A, C, D, E, F, P, AA, AB
		Reserved parking for cleaner vehicles	C, E, F, AB
		Bike parking next to bike lanes (difference between private vs shared)	E, L, P, R, W, AA, AB
	Information	Wayfinding signage	C, D, E, G, K, L, S, W, Y, AA, AB, AE
		Signage & branding	A, F, H, N, R, S, W, AA
		Digital information or information pillars	A, C, D, E, F, I, K, M, N, R, S, V, W, X, Y, AB
		Pavement markings	C, E, F, AB
III. Visibility of Hubs	Visibility of the station to passengers		A, C, D, H, N, R, Y
	Visibility among different modes		C, E, G, N, AA
	Stations well lit at night		C, M, T, Y, AB
	Coherent furniture		B, E
IV. Accessibility for all	Accessibility for all segments of the population		A, C, E, O, Q, T, W, Y, AB
	Barrier-free, universal gates and tactile information and guides		E, L, M, T, U, W, Y, AA, AB
	Waiting areas (sheltered)		B, C, G, J, K, L, R, S, V, X, Y, AB
	Gentle ramps, escalators, and elevators		S, W, Y, AB
	Assistance staff (to help users)		AB
V. Hubs as a place-maker	Social safety, security surveillance		A, C, D, E, K, L, N, S, T, V, Y, AB, AC
	Environmental building		A, C, E, K, M, S
	Visually interesting places		C, E, L
	Landscape, green and street furniture		C, E, K, L, S, T
	Drinking fountains and/or bathrooms		C, D, E, S
	Storage and/or urban freight facilities		C, D, E, I, Y, AB
	Modular design		B, E, K, L
	Cleanliness		S, T, W, Y, AB
	Attractive and functional public gathering spaces		C, J, K
	Direct connection to shops, amenities, and points of interest		C, I, J, K, L, M, O, P, Q, R, S, T, V, Y, AA, AB

Mobility hubs: A:(CoMoUK, 2019), BfxSchelling, 2021), C:(Urban Design Studio, 2016), D: Mobility hubs (SUMC, 2019), E:(Aono, 2019), F: (Pfertner, 2017), G: (Miramontes, 2018), H: (Silva & Uhlmann, 2021), I: (Coenegrachts et al., 2021), J: (Cui, 2021), K: (Metrolinx, 2011), L: (Monzon & Ciommo, 2016), M: (Schemel et al., 2020), N: (Mouw, 2020), O: (Frank et al., 2021), P: (Petrović et al., 2019), Q: (Anderson et al., 2017), R: (Blad et al., 2022), Public transport stations S: (Wright & Hook, 2007), T: (Chidambara, 2019), V: (Nag et al., 2019), W: (Nielsen et al., 2005), Seamless /Multimodal/ Intermodal X: (Preston, 2012), Y: (Indrakesuma, 2018), Z: (Luo et al., 2021), AA: (Hasan & Al-Khafaji, 2021), AB: (Conticelli et al., 2021), Bike & Ride AC: (Tavassoli & Tamannaei, 2020), Park & Ride AD: (Bolger et al., 1992), AE: (Mather, 1983).

Figure 1. The SmartHubs Integration Ladder – summary.

Table 4. The SmartHubs Integration Ladder – description.

	Physical integration	Digital integration	Democratic integration
Level 4	Conflict free and place-making. At least two shared transport modes visible from a public transport stop with no conflicts or barriers, and information on using the services and at least two services. Universal design principles are considered. Placemaking and attractive space design.	Integration of societal goals, policies, and incentives. Local, regional, and/or national policies and goals are integrated into the service. Universal design principles are considered, including simple and intuitive app design and low-tech or analogue booking alternatives. Incentives for desired behaviour are implemented.	Social learning. Participation takers and givers, including vulnerable users, have networked, and integrated into the community, and participation becomes permanent and independent. Participation methods involves a permanent and independent exchange between participation givers and takers, so mutual understanding and interaction get institutionalised.
Level 3	Visibility, attractive hub design and branding. At least two shared transport modes visible from a public transport stop and at least one service (e.g. shop, parcel locker, kiosk), information about the service and potential conflicts, attractive design of the mobility hub and branding, including sheltered waiting areas. Universal design principles are considered.	Integration of service offers. Shared and public transport services at the hub are bundled, possibly subscription based. Universal design principles are considered, including simple and intuitive app design and low-tech or analogue booking alternatives.	Integration of different knowledge. Participation takers, including vulnerable users, argue or deny positions, their input is integrated into the participation process, and participation givers create room for decision-making.
Level 2	Wayfinding and universal design. At least two shared transport modes within acceptable walking distance to public transport with wayfinding and information on using the service and at least one service (e.g. parcel locker, kiosk) within acceptable walking distance. Universal design principles are considered, creating an accessible environment with relevant elements such as ramps, escalators, and elevators.	Integration of booking and payment and universal design. Easy access to services for end-users – such as a mobility marketplace or a one-stop shop where the user can find, book, and pay with the same app. Universal design principles are considered, including simple and intuitive app design and low-tech or analogue booking alternatives.	Deliberative engagement of stakeholders. Participation takers, including vulnerable users, argumentatively engage in decision-making, exchange of positions, active participation, participation givers invite participation and listen to stakeholder interests, including those of vulnerable user groups. Participating methods include a public hearing and invitation sto send feedback via mail and/or webform.
Level 1	Acceptable walking distance to shared and public transport. At least two shared transport modes within acceptable walking distance to public transport and at least one service (e.g. shop, parcel locker, kiosk) within acceptable walking distance. Minimum legal inclusive design requirements are considered.	Integration of information. Multimodal travel planners can be used to plan mobility offerings at hubs. Minimum inclusive design requirements are considered such as simple and intuitive app design.	Appropriate representation of stakeholder interests. Participation takers are asked to be part of a consultation process and are provided with relevant information. No or limited attention to involve vulnerable user groups. Participation methods include surveys and handing out flyers, brochures, etc.
Level 0	No physical integration. One shared transport mode, not at walking distance to public transport, no integration between the modes. No universal design criteria are considered.	No digital integration of shared and public transport mode options. There are separate services and platforms for each mode. No universal design criteria are considered.	No involvement or consideration of stakeholder interests and user needs.

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