Mechanisms with equity implications for the (non-) adoption of electric mobility in the early stage of the energy transition

Figures & data

Figure 1. EM publication trends using Scopus bibliographic data base.

Figure 2. Literature selection: workflow.

Table 1. Summary of (non)adoption evidence with justice implications for private EVs and SEMM.

	EVs	SEMM
Distributive aspects	Economic incentives appeal more to affluent groups than low-income groups.	Spatial accessibility and compliance with distribution policies (for private companies profit-driven). High-demand zones and disconnected networks.
	Unequal access to charging options due to high demand EVs charging allocation and lack of public charging.	Type of micromobility system and lack of equity assessment in the distribution and use.
Procedural aspects	The diffusion focus on new private “clean” vehicles overlooking life-cycle assessments and alternative and inclusive forms of mobility	The diffusion assumes social digitalisation and overlook equity issues in in the design of private mobility services providers.
	Complexity in benefits packages creation (EVs are disproportionally adopted by high socio-economic groups)	SEMM (non) users’ visions and public space use concerns are not well-integrated into the local planning process.
Recognition aspects	High-risk purchase perception by low-income households and second hand/affordable vehicles needs specific attention	Individual capabilities issues to face barriers in the build environment in different socio-urban contexts.
	Difficult in the materialisation of the incentives (e.g. complex tax deductions).	Difficult in the materialisation of the incentives (e.g. knowledge, payment methods and ICT access).

Figure 3. Main dimensions of justice and its relationships derived from the mechanisms reviewed.

Table A1. Papers reviewed exploring mechanisms of EM adoption with (un) justice implications/evidence.

Author	Title	EV/SEMM	Region/country	Method: Bibliographic Search (BS) / Team Knowledge and Snowball
Adnan et al. (2017)	A comprehensive review on theoretical framework-based electric vehicle consumer adoption research	EV	Not relevant – Literature review	BS
Akar and Miller (2021)	Special Issue on New Mobility Technologies and Cities	SEMM	Not specified	Team
Andrich et al. (2013)	Inequality as an obstacle to sustainable electricity and transport energy use	EV	Western Australia	BS
Bateman et al. (2021)	Barriers and facilitators to bikeshare programs: A qualitative study in an urban environment	SEMM	Alabama	Team
Bergman et al. (2017)	Imagined people, behaviour and future mobility: Insights from visions of electric vehicles and car clubs in the United Kingdom	EV	UK	Team
Biresselioglu et al. (2018)	Electric mobility in Europe: A comprehensive review of motivators and barriers in decision making processes	EV	Europe	BS
Canepa et al. (2019)	An early look at plug-in electric vehicle adoption in disadvantaged communities in California	EV	California	BS
Carley et al. (2013)	Intent to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle: A survey of early impressions in large US cites	EV	US	Team
Carlton and Sultana (2022)	Transport equity considerations in electric vehicle charging research: a scoping review	EV	Not relevant – Literature review	Team
Chakraborty et al. (2022)	Plug-in electric vehicle diffusion in California: Role of exposure to new technology at home and work	EV	California	Team
Christoforou et al. (2021)	Who is using e-scooters and how? Evidence from Paris	SEMM	Paris	Team
Curran and Tyfield (2019)	Low-Carbon Transition as Vehicle of New Inequalities? Risk-Class, the Chinese Middle-Class and the Moral Economy of Misrecognition	EV	China	BS
Coffman et al. (2016)	Electric vehicles revisited: a review of factors that affect adoption	EV	Not relevant – Literature review	Team
Dias et al. (2021)	The role of shared e-scooter systems in urban sustainability and resilience during the covid-19 mobility restrictions	SEMM	Braga	BS
Dill and McNeil (2020)	Are Shared Vehicles Shared by All? A Review of Equity and Vehicle Sharing	SEMM	Not relevant – Literature review	BS
Fitt and Curl (2020)	The early days of shared micromobility: A social practices approach	SEMM	New Zealand	BS
Frias-Martinez et al. (2021)	Causal effect of low-income areas on shared dockless e-scooter use	SEMM	US	BS
Gavin et al. (2016)	A Brief Study Exploring Social Equity within Bicycle Share Programs	SEMM (SMM)	US	Team
Guo and Kontou (2021)	Disparities and equity issues in electric vehicles rebate allocation	EV	California	BS
Guo and Kontou (2021)	A systematic overview of transportation equity in terms of accessibility, traffic emissions, and safety outcomes: From conventional to emerging technologies	EV	Not specified	BS
Hardman et al. (2017)	The effectiveness of financial purchase incentives for battery electric vehicles – A review of the evidence	EV	Not relevant – Literature review	Team
Henderson (2020)	EVs are not the answer: a mobility justice critique of electric vehicle transitions	EV	Not specified	BS
Hirsch et al. (2019)	Roadmap for free-floating bikeshare research and practice in North America	SEMM	North America	Team
Hsu and Fingerman (2021)	Public electric vehicle charger access disparities across race and income in California	EV	California	Team
Jenn et al. (2018)	Effectiveness of electric vehicle incentives in the United States	EV	US	Team
Laa and Leth (2020)	Survey of E-scooter users in Vienna: Who they are and how they ride	SEMM	Vienna	BS
Lazarus et al. (2020)	Micromobility evolution and expansion: Understanding how docked and dockless bikesharing models complement and compete – A case study of San Francisco	SEMM	San Francisco	BS
Lee et al. (2021)	Factors affecting heterogeneity in willingness to use e-scooter sharing services	SEMM	Seoul	Team
Liu et al. (2022)	Equity issues associated with U.S. plug-in electric vehicle income tax credits	EV	US	BS
Machado et al. (2020)	Placement of infrastructure for urban electromobility: A sustainable approach	EV	Sao Paulo	BS
Meng and Brown (2021)	Docked vs. dockless equity: Comparing three micromobility service geographies	SEMM	US	BS
Milakis et al. (2020)	Is micro-mobility sustainable? An overview of implications for accessibility, air pollution, safety, physical activity and subjective wellbeing	SEMM	Not specified	Team
Moran (2021)	Drawing the map: The creation and regulation of geographic constraints on shared bikes and e-scooters in San Francisco, CA	SEMM	San Francisco	BS
Nelson et al. (2021)	Equity in Renewable Energy Technology Adoption in China: a Review of the Social-Psychological and Demographic Barriers	EV	China	BS
Reck and Axhausen (2021)	Who uses shared micro-mobility services? Empirical evidence from Zurich, Switzerland	SEMM	Zurich	BS
Roy and Law (2022)	Examining spatial disparities in electric vehicle charging station placements using machine learning	EV	California	Team
Sanders et al. (2020)	To scoot or not to scoot: Findings from a recent survey about the benefits and barriers of using E-scooters for riders and non-riders	SEMM	Tempe	BS
Schuitema et al. (2013)	The role of instrumental, hedonic and symbolic attributes in the intention to adopt electric vehicles	EV	United Kingdom	Team
Singh, Singh, and Vaibhav (2020)	A review and simple meta-analysis of factors influencing adoption of electric vehicles	EV	Not relevant – Literature review	Team
Sovacool, Kester, et al. (2019)	Energy Injustice and Nordic Electric Mobility: Inequality, Elitism, and Externalities in the Electrification of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Transport	EV	Nordic countries	BS
Wicki et al. (2022)	What do we really know about the acceptance of battery electric vehicles? – Turns out, not much	EV	Not relevant – Literature review	BS
Wood and Jain (2020)	Raceways, rebates, and retrofits: an exploration of several American cities’ policies to facilitate electric vehicle purchase and usage	EV	US	BS

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Akar, G., & Miller, H. J. (2021). Special issue on new mobility technologies and cities. Journal of Planning Literature, 36(1), 3–4. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412220975515

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Bateman, L. B., Fouad, M. N., Sullivan, A., Heider, L., & Oates, G. R. (2021). Barriers and facilitators to bikeshare programs: A qualitative study in an urban environment. Journal of Transport & Health, 21, Article 101062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2021.101062

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Bergman, N., Schwanen, T., & Sovacool, B. K. (2017). Imagined people, behaviour and future mobility: Insights from visions of electric vehicles and car clubs in the United Kingdom. Transport Policy, 59, 165–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2017.07.016

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Biresselioglu, M. E., Demirbag Kaplan, M., & Yilmaz, B. K. (2018). Electric mobility in Europe: A comprehensive review of motivators and barriers in decision making processes. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 109, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2018.01.017

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Canepa, K., Hardman, S., & Tal, G. (2019). An early look at plug-in electric vehicle adoption in disadvantaged communities in California. Transport Policy, 78, 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2019.03.009

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Carley, S., Krause, R. M., Lane, B. W., & Graham, J. D. (2013). Intent to purchase a plug-in electric vehicle: A survey of early impressions in large US cites. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 18, 39–45.

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Carlton, G., & Sultana, S. (2022). Transport equity considerations in electric vehicle charging research: A scoping review. Transport Reviews, 43(3), 330–355. https://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2022.2109775

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Chakraborty, D., Bunch, D. S., Brownstone, D., Xu, B., & Tal, G. (2022). Plug-in electric vehicle diffusion in California: Role of exposure to new technology at home and work. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 156, 133–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2021.12.005

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Christoforou, Z., Gioldasis, C., de Bortoli, A., & Seidowsky, R. (2021). Who is using e-scooters and how? Evidence from Paris. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 92, Article 102708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102708

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Curran, D., & Tyfield, D. (2019). Low-carbon transition as vehicle of new inequalities? Risk-class, the Chinese middle-class and the moral economy of misrecognition. Theory, Culture & Society, 37(2), 131–156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0263276419869438

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Dias, G., Arsenio, E., & Ribeiro, P. (2021). The role of shared E-scooter systems in urban sustainability and resilience during the COVID-19 mobility restrictions. Sustainability, 13(13), 7084. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137084

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Dill, J., & McNeil, N. (2020). Are shared vehicles shared by all? A review of equity and vehicle sharing. Journal of Planning Literature, 36(1), 5–30. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885412220966732

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Frias-Martinez, V., Sloate, E., Manglunia, H., & Wu, J. (2021). Causal effect of low-income areas on shared dockless e-scooter use. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 100, Article 103038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.103038

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Gavin, K., Bennett, A., Auchincloss, A. H., & Katenta, A. (2016). A brief study exploring social equity within bicycle share programs. Transportation Letters, 8(3), 177–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/19427867.2015.1126065

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Guo, S., & Kontou, E. (2021). Disparities and equity issues in electric vehicles rebate allocation. Energy Policy, 154, Article 112291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112291

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Hardman, S., Chandan, A., Tal, G., & Turrentine, T. (2017). The effectiveness of financial purchase incentives for battery electric vehicles – a review of the evidence. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 80, 1100–1111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.255

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