Relationships Among Caregiving, Income, Gender, and Health: A Cross-Sectional Examination of a Representative Sample of Older Americans

ABSTRACT

Although there is substantial evidence to support the effect of burden on caregivers, few studies have compared caregivers to their noncaregiving counterparts on the basis of health and well-being outcomes. This study examines the relationship between caregiving and health and whether other factors may have stronger influence on well-being measures. Using a nationally representative sample of older adults in the United States (N = 3,005), this study examines relationships between caregiving status, gender, and income, and 9 outcomes (self-rated physical and mental health, time since seeing a doctor, time since most recent pap smear or prostate-specific antigen [PSA] test, depression, loneliness, stress, anxiety), using logistic and linear regression models. Results support that paradoxically, caregiving was associated with increased likelihood of PSA test in male caregivers, although data also indicated higher levels of anxiety and stress, as might be expected. Income was associated with 8 of 9 outcomes, and gender predicted depression, anxiety, stress, and self-rated mental health. The study highlighted the importance of psychosocial stressors, such as income and gender, on the health outcomes of older adults who may be caregiving. Considering complexity of unique experience is necessary to accurately assess vulnerability to poor mental health or health-related outcomes.

KEYWORDS:

• Caregiving
• stress
• preventive health
• National Social Life, Health, & Aging Project

Acknowledgments

This manuscript has not been submitted elsewhere simultaneously and has not been previously published. The de-identified data set is publicly available from the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (www.icpsr.umich.edu) and thus exempt from IRB. We used the STROBE statement as a guideline for reporting.

Funding

Dr. Wharton was funded by NIH (T32 MH 73553-8 and L30 AG047993-01). Dr. Zivin was funded by the Department of Veterans Affairs, Health Services Research and Development (VA IIR 10-176-3). The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the States of Michigan or Florida, the U.S. Government, or any of its agencies.

ORCID

Tracy Wharton http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3734-8380