Ammonia-Oxidizing Archaea Dominate Ammonia-Oxidizing Communities within Alkaline Cave Sediments

ABSTRACT

Nitrification represents one of the key steps in the global nitrogen cycle. While originally considered an exclusive metabolic capability of bacteria, the identification of the Thaumarchaeota revealed that ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) are also important contributors to this process, particularly in acidic environments. Nonetheless, the relative contribution of AOA to global nitrification remains difficult to ascertain, particularly in underexplored neutrophilic and alkalinophilic terrestrial systems. In this study we examined the contribution of AOA to nitrification within alkaline (pH 8.3–8.7) cave environments using quantitative PCR, crenarchaeol lipid identification and measurement of potential nitrification rates. Our results showed that AOA outnumber ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) by up to four orders of magnitude in cave sediments. The dominance of Thaumarchaeota in the archaeal communities was confirmed by both archaeal 16S rRNA gene clone library and membrane lipid analyses, while potential nitrification rates suggest that Thaumarchaeota may contribute up to 100% of ammonia oxidation in these sediments. Phylogenetic analysis of Thaumarchaeota amoA gene sequences demonstrated similarity to amoA clones across a range of terrestrial habitats, including acidic ecosystems. These data suggest that despite the alkaline conditions within the cave, the low NH₃ concentrations measured continue to favor growth of AOA over AOB populations. In addition to providing important information regarding niche differentiation within Thaumarchaeota, these data may provide important clues as to the factors that have historically led to nitrate accumulation within cave sediments.

KEYWORDS:

• Ammonia-oxidizing
• amoA gene
• cave
• nitrification
• Thaumarchaeota

Funding

This work was jointly supported by the grants from the Natural Science Foundation of China (41130207, 41572325) and the National Basic Research Program of China (2011CB808800). HAB was supported in part by a grant from the U.S, National Science Foundation Microbial Interactions and Processes Program (NSF# 0643462).

Acknowledgements

We thank Qiang Dong and Zhong Zhang for help in sample collection, and Hongchen Jiang, Liuqin Huang and Shang Wang for technical assistance.