The Consequences of Divorce-Related Relocation: A Scoping Review on the (Lack of) Knowledge of the Topic

Figures & data

Figure 1. Study selection flowchart with a focus on the social scientific articles, from which the 17 empirical studies were derived.

Conducted bibliographic search Results databases 9^th of August 2021.

Database	Results
Web of Science	2308
APA PsycInfo	2294
Scopus	2736
IBSS	1141
Total	8479
After deduplicating	5954

Table A1. Descriptive information of the 17 included studies.

	Sample	Definition of relocation	Research method & category	Research observations
1. Adam & Chase-Lansdale, 2002; USA	Families in Communities Study: 267 African American female adolescents and their female caregivers living in one of three high poverty neighborhoods in a large Midwestern city (Randomized block quota technique – probability sampling)	The total parental separations, as well as separations from mother and father figures, from longstanding and temporary caregivers, and during early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence were examined	Data were collected as part of the Families in Communities (FIC) study by professional survey interviewers with caregivers and adolescents. Most adolescents (95%) completed self- administered paper-and-pencil questionnaires (Quantitative)	The characteristics of adolescents’ current households, welfare in the household, the level of economic pressure, number of residential moves, the number of parental separations & adolescent perceptions of current relationships, educational outcomes, internalizing and externalizing problems, and sexual behavior
2. Norford & Medway, 2002; USA	High School Students Sample: 408 high school students (242 female and 166 male) in grades 10, 11 and 12 in a medium-size South-eastern city and 67 related mothers completed a telephone survey (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	Students who had changed schools	Online survey with students and a telephone survey with several mothers (Quantitative)	The construct of social adjustment as reflected by students’ perceptions of social support and participation in extracurricular activities, depression, the number of prior moves to a new school, the main reason for the move, and the date of last move, demographic and background information, student mobility questionnaire, stressful events scale, shyness scale, family cohesion scale, Reynolds adolescent depression scale, social support appraisals scale (friends subscale), extracurricular activities survey, high mobility attitude scales
3. Gilman et al., 2003; UK	National Collaborative Project: 1089 participants were interviewed (retrieved from National Collaborative Perinatal Project) (Stratified random sample –probability sampling)	Residential instability was based on the number of moves since birth as reported by participants’ mothers during the age 7 interview	A stratified random sample of the National Collaborative Perinatal Project (NCPP) was drawn, and surveys were conducted by trained interviewers (Quantitative)	Demographic measures, childhood SES, Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS) and family history of mental disorders
4. Fabricius, 2003; USA	Arizona Psychology Sample: 829 Psychology students (485 female and 344 male) from Arizona State University (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	Parents moving away after divorce, thereby separating children from one parent	A survey was conducted and compared with a comparison group of families which neither parent ever moved away (Qualitative)	Children’s living arrangements, post-divorce parent-child relationships, college financial support and parental relocation after divorce
5. Braver et al., 2003; USA^15	Psychology Department Study: 602 Psychology students from a large Southwestern state University in the fall of 2001 (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	One of the parents moves more than one hour’s drive away from the other parent after their divorce	A survey was conducted and compared with a comparison group of families which neither parent ever moved away (Quantitative)	Financial and emotional support from parents, personal distress and adjustment, social relations, substance abuse, and psychical health
6. Fabricius & Braver, 2006; USA	Psychology Department Study: 602 Psychology students from a large Southwestern state University in the fall of 2001 (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	One of the (divorced) parents moves more than one hour’s drive away from what used to be the family home	Surveys were administered in a large southwestern state university (Quantitative)	How often children had witnessed a parent hitting, questions on parental conflict and domestic violence
7. Behrens et al., 2009; Australia^16	Parents with Contested Court Order: 38 parents (11 mothers and 27 fathers) who had a decision about relocation made by the Federal Court of Australia (FCA), the Family Court of Western Australia (FCWA) or Federal Magistrates Court (FMC) between 2002 and mid-2005 (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	We identify a relocation case as one in which separated parents are in dispute about the geographical place of residence of their child or children	In-depth semi-structured interviews were with parents who had a contested court order in relation to relocation. Besides, a detailed analysis and coding of the population of judgments in relocation cases for the same period was conducted (Qualitative)	Parents’ accounts of circumstances: prior to the relocation dispute, around the time of the relocation dispute and after the relocation dispute
8. Behrens & Smyth, 2010; Australia	Parents with Contested Court Order: 38 parents (11 mothers and 27 fathers) who had a decision about relocation made by the Federal Court of Australia (FCA), the Family Court of Western Australia (FCWA) or Federal Magistrates Court (FMC) between 2002 and mid-2005 (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	N.A.^17	In-depth semi-structured interviews with parents who had a contested court order in relation to relocation (Qualitative)	Parents’ accounts of circumstances: prior to the relocation dispute, around the time of the relocation dispute and after the relocation dispute
9. Taylor et al., 2010; New Zealand^18	100 New Zealand families sample: 114 parents (73 mothers and 41 fathers) from 100 families and 44 children (23 female and 21 male), aged 7-18 years, from 30 families during 2007-2009 (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	Families where a parent has relocated (or sought to relocate) with the children and that move would have a significant impact on contact arrangements with the other parent	Semi-structured interviews and a demographic questionnaire at the end of the interview, the most face-to-face and some over the telephone, via e-mail or with Skype. The parents were interviewed twice (Qualitative)	Details of the separation, relocation (case) and contact/residence arrangements. Parents completed a questionnaire about the parental relationship and the child’s social and emotional development
10. Gollop & Taylor, 2012; UK	100 New Zealand families sample: 44 children (23 female and 21 male), aged 7-18 years, from 30 families during 2007-2009 (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	Families where one parent had relocated (or sought to relocate) and the move would have a significant impact on contact arrangements with the other parent	Interviews with children and young people (Qualitative)	The children’s living arrangements; knowledge and understanding about separation; current and past contact and arrangements and how they felt about these; experiences of moving; advice they would give other children and parents
11. Parkinson et al., 2010; Australia^19	5-year prospective longitudinal study: 80 parents (40 mothers and 40 fathers) and 19 children between mid-2006 and early-2012 from all over the country, interviewed within a few months of the resolution of the relocation dispute (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	N.A.^20	Participants were interviewed three times over a 4–5-year period after the relocation dispute was resolved, in this study only the first two interviews were conducted (Qualitative)	Reasons for relocation, outcomes of the cases, rate of settlement, financial impact of disputes, how the cost of travel affects both resident and nonresident parents, and problem with contact following relocations
12. Parkinson & Cashmore, 2013; Australia	5-year prospective longitudinal study: 15 mothers who did not move because the relocation was denied, from a sample of 80 parents (40 mothers and 40 fathers) between mid-2006 and early-2012 from all over the country (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	Relocation cases involve disputes that arise between parents when one parent who has primary or shared custody of the children wants to move a long way from the current residence, and where such a move will adversely impact the other parent’s opportunity to spend time with the children	Participants were interviewed three times over a 4–5-year period after the relocation dispute was resolved (Qualitative)	The General Health Questionnaire, and the Ahrons Acrimony scale, the Ahrons Content of Co-parental Interaction and the Ahrons Quality of Co-Parental Communication, histories of domestic violence and whether they had sought restraining orders
13. Parkinson & Cashmore, 2015; Australia	5-year prospective longitudinal study: 80 parents (40 mothers and 40 fathers) between mid-2006 and early-2012 from all over the country, interviewed within a few months of the resolution of the relocation dispute (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	Any proposed move of a substantial distance, which makes it harder for a nonresident parent to spend time with, and to be involved in, the life of the child, considering the financial circumstances of the parents and the practical difficulties of travel	Participants were interviewed three times over a 4–5-year period after the relocation dispute was resolved (Qualitative)	The reasons for relocation, the costs of the disputes, parents’ reaction to the outcome and how children did fare after the relocation
14. Cashmore & Parkinson, 2016; Australia	5-year prospective longitudinal study: 33 children (15 female and 18 male), from 20 families, were interviewed and 22 participants (18 female, 3 male and 1 other) completed the online survey (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	When one parent wishes to take the children to live a long way from the other parent	Interviews with children together with supplementary data from an online survey of children who travel to visit their nonresident parent (Qualitative)	Children were asked about their views on the relocation, their relationships with each of their parents, and how well they were adjusting to the various changes in their lives
15. Parkinson & Cashmore, 2018; Australia	5-year prospective longitudinal study: 80 parents (40 mothers and 40 fathers) and 33 children between mid-2006 and early-2012 from all over the country, interviewed within a few months of the resolution of the relocation dispute (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	N.A.^21	Participants were interviewed three times over a 4–5-year period after the relocation dispute was resolved (Qualitative)	Information about the relocation dispute (cost, settlement, and impact). A General Health Questionnaire, the Ahrons acrimony, conflict scales, and the Strengths and Difficulties Scale. Children were asked about their views on the relocation, relationships with their parents, and how well they were adjusting
16. Koller, 2016; USA	MTurk survey: 701 participants (338 female and 363 male) with a mean age of 32.8 years between June-August 2004 (Convenience sample – non-probability sampling)	Children who relocated with a primary custodial parent away from a partial or noncustodial parent post-divorce	An online survey was conducted via Amazon’s Mechanical Turk (Mturk) program (Quantitative)	Demographic measures, information about the divorce, experiences of the relocation and psychological and health measures
17. Stevenson et al., 2018; USA	Parents and Youth longitudinal Study: 81 adolescents (43 female and 38 male) with a mean age of 12.5 at the first wave and 22 at the last wave, from the Parents and Youth Study (PAS), a longitudinal investigation (Stratified random sample –probability sampling)	A child’s separation from their biological fathers of at least one hour’s drive away either because their mothers relocated with them, or their fathers moved away from them	Data obtained by trained interviewers from mothers and youth at 5 moments in time (Quantitative)	Behavioral and mental health problems, including involvement with the juvenile justice system, risky sexual behaviors, drug use, involvement with delinquent peers, aggression, delinquency, and symptoms of depression and anxiety

Table A2. The distribution of measures per domain.

Study	Measure	Domain
1. Adam & Chase-Lansdale, 2002	Adjustment index (combination of multiple measures)	Psychological/emotional
	Internalizing problems	Psychological/emotional
	Neighborhood problems	Psychological/emotional
	Kin- and nonkin support	Relational
	Quality of maternal relationships	Relational
	Quality of paternal relationships	Relational
	Quality of peer relationships	Relational
	Externalizing problems	Behavioral
	Sexual behavior	Behavioral
	Caregiver on welfare	Financial
	The level of economic pressure on the family	Financial
	Dropout-rates	Educational
	Educational outcomes	Educational
2. Norford & Medway, 2002	High mobility attitude scales	Psychological/emotional
	Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale	Psychological/emotional
	Shyness scale	Psychological/emotional
	Family Cohesion scale	Relational
	Social Support Appraisals Scale, Friends Subscale.	Relational
	Extracurricular Activities Survey	Behavioral
3. Gilman et al., 2003	Age at depression onset	Psychological/emotional
	Lifetime diagnosis of major depressive episode	Psychological/emotional
	Two measures of the subsequent course of the disorder were obtained	Psychological/emotional
4. Fabricius, 2003	The best living arrangements at different ages	Psychological/emotional
	The desired time to spend with the father in contrast with the actual time	Psychological/emotional
	The living arrangements they wanted	Psychological/emotional
	Agreement between parents about living arrangements	Relational
	Anger about interfering behavior toward other parent	Relational
	Anger toward father	Relational
	Anger toward mother	Relational
	Closeness to father	Relational
	Closeness to mother	Relational
	Reasons I did not live with dad more	Relational
	Undermining the Relationship to the Other Parent	Relational
	Parents’ financial support for children’s college expenses	Financial
5. Braver et al., 2003	Current adjustment levels	Psychological/emotional
	General life satisfaction	Psychological/emotional
	Inner turmoil and distress from divorce	Psychological/emotional
	Worry over college expenses	Psychological/emotional
	How well parents get along	Relational
	Platonic relationship choices	Relational
	Regarding the mother/father as positive supporter and role model	Relational
	Romantic relationships choices	Relational
	Hostility	Behavioral
	Substance abuse subscales	Behavioral
	Parental contribution to college expenses	Financial
	General physical health	Physical health
6. Fabricius & Braver, 2006	Frequency of parental conflict	Relational
	Severity of parental conflict	Relational
	Domestic violence after divorce	Behavioral
	Domestic violence ever	Behavioral
7. Behrens et al., 2009 & 8. Behrens & Smyth, 2010 ^22	Advice for other parents and reflections about experiences	Psychological/emotional
	Parents’ and children’s well-being after the relocation dispute	Psychological/emotional
	Degree of conflict between parents	Relational
	Gatekeeping behavior	Relational
	Patterns of parenting after the relocation dispute	Relational
	Patterns of parenting prior to relocation dispute arising	Relational
	Quality of parent-child relationship after relocation	Relational
	Quality of relationship with other parent after to relocation dispute arising	Relational
	Quality of relationship with other parent prior to relocation dispute arising	Relational
	Allegations of violence or abuse if present	Behavioral
9. Taylor et al., 2010	Advice for others	Psychological/emotional
	A child’s social and emotional development	Psychological/emotional
	Experiences of the traveling when moved	Psychological/emotional
	Experience and understanding of any professionals involved	Psychological/emotional
	Feeling about contact arrangements	Psychological/emotional
	Impact of the relocation and/or relocation dispute	Psychological/emotional
	Knowledge and understanding about their parents’ separation	Psychological/emotional
	Satisfaction with legal process	Psychological/emotional
	The impact of an unsuccessful request	Psychological/emotional
	The impact of a move on the parent who stays behind	Psychological/emotional
	What helped or hindered	Psychological/emotional
	Anger toward parents	Relational
	Impact of the relocation dispute	Relational
	Missing the other parent	Relational
	Nature of the parental relationship	Relational
	Relationship issues	Relational
	Current situation - financial	Financial
10. Gollop & Taylor, 2012	Adjustment to relocation	Psychological/emotional
	Advice for other children and parents	Psychological/emotional
	Children’s voice in the matter	Psychological/emotional
	Current and past contact and residence arrangements and how they felt about these	Psychological/emotional
	Experiences of moving if applicable	Psychological/emotional
	Experience and understanding of any professionals involved	Psychological/emotional
	Experience with traveling	Psychological/emotional
	Knowledge and understanding about their parents’ separation	Psychological/emotional
	Knowledge of and involvement in the relocation decision	Psychological/emotional
	Contact with nonresident parent	Relational
	Missing nonresident parent	Relational
11. Parkinson et al., 2010	Burden of travel	Psychological/emotional
	Stress due to legal costs	Psychological/emotional
	Problems with contact following relocations	Relational
	How the cost of travel affects both parents	Financial
	The financial impact of relocation disputes	Financial
12. Parkinson & Cashmore, 2013	Factors affecting maternal adjustment	Psychological/emotional
	Happiness of mother	Psychological/emotional
	Overall adjustment to not moving	Psychological/emotional
	Feelings of hostility from mother to father	Relational
	Impact of move on father-child relationship	Relational
	The father’s degree of involvement with, and responsibility for, the children	Relational
	The level of toxicity in the father-mother relationship	Relational
	Domestic violence	Behavioral
13. Parkinson & Cashmore, 2015	Consequences for fathers of children who moved away	Psychological/emotional
	Consequences for mothers who remained with their children	Psychological/emotional
	Feelings about traveling due to the relocation	Psychological/emotional
	How the children did fare	Psychological/emotional
	Parents’ reactions to the outcome	Psychological/emotional
	Feelings of missing the father	Relational
	Impact of move on father-child relationship	Relational
	The costs of the dispute	Financial
	General health	Physical health
14. Cashmore & Parkinson, 2016	Adjusting to new location	Psychological/emotional
	How children coped with travel between parents who live some distance apart	Psychological/emotional
	Saying goodbye to the family home	Psychological/emotional
	Their views on relocation	Psychological/emotional
	Their views on separation	Psychological/emotional
	Timing of the move	Psychological/emotional
	Relationships with friends	Relational
	Their relationships with each of their parents	Relational
15. Parkinson & Cashmore, 2018	Children’s behavior and adjustment (SDQ)	Psychological/emotional
	How well they were adjusting to the various changes	Psychological/emotional
	Impact of the relocation (dispute) on fathers	Psychological/emotional
	Impact of the relocation (dispute) on mothers who were allowed to move	Psychological/emotional
	The children’s behavior and adjustment	Psychological/emotional
	Views on the relocation	Psychological/emotional
	Assessment of co-parenting	Relational
	Cooperation and conflict scale	Relational
	Relationship with each parent	Relational
	Relationships with friends	Relational
	The costs of the relocation dispute	Financial
	General health	Physical health
16. Koller, 2016	Personality Inventory	Psychological/emotional
	Psychological well-being	Psychological/emotional
	Psychotropic medications for mental health	Psychological/emotional
	The satisfaction with life	Psychological/emotional
	Contact with partial custody parent	Relational
	How connected with mother and father	Relational
	Levels of conflict in families of origin	Relational
	Been arrested/convicted a crime as an adult	Behavioral
	Self-harming behaviors or suicide attempts	Behavioral
	Verbal, emotional, or physical abuse	Behavioral
	Current annual income	Financial
	Health survey	Physical health
	Highest level of obtained education	Educational
17. Stevenson, Fabricius, Braver & Cookston	Long-term Internalizing problems	Psychological/emotional
	Short-term Internalizing problems	Psychological/emotional
	Long-term Involvement with delinquent peers	Relational
	Long-term Perceived mattering to mother	Relational
	Long-term Perceived mattering to nonresident father	Relational
	Mother-biological father relationship quality	Relational
	Mother-stepfather nonviolent conflict	Relational
	Perceived mattering to stepfather	Relational
	Short-term Involvement with delinquent peers	Relational
	Short-term Perceived mattering to mother	Relational
	Short-term Perceived mattering to nonresident father	Relational
	Long-term Drug use	Behavioral
	Long-term Externalizing problems	Behavioral
	Long-term Juvenile justice involvement	Behavioral
	Mother-stepfather intimate partner violence (IPV)	Behavioral
	Risky sexual behavior	Behavioral
	Short-term Drug use	Behavioral
	Short-term Externalizing problems	Behavioral
	Short-term Juvenile justice involvement	Behavioral
	Association relocation and family income	Financial

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