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Notes
1 Dani Rodrick and Stephen M. Walt, “How to Build a Better World Order,” Foreign Affairs 101, no. 5 (2022): 142-155; Jeffrey Anderson, “The Silver Lining of Biden’s ‘New Protectionism’,” Foreign Policy, March 2, 2023, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/03/02/biden-protectionism-us-eu-economy-investment-green-industry/.
2 For the definition and components of protectionism, see The World Trade Organization, “Understanding the WTO: The Agreements,” accessed May 2024, https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/agrm1_e.htm.
3 Ravi Agrawal and Katherine Tai, “The White House’s Case for Industrial Policy,” Foreign Policy, March 2, 2023, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/03/02/live-industrial-policy-katherine-tai-trade-economy-chips-inflation/?utm_source=PostUp&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Editors%20Picks%20OC&utm_term=75906&tpcc=Editors%20Picks%20OC.
4 The White House, “President Biden Takes Action to Protect American Workers and Businesses from China’s Unfair Trade Practices,” May 14, 2024, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/05/14/fact-sheet-president-biden-takes-action-to-protect-american-workers-and-businesses-from-chinas-unfair-trade-practices/.
5 The White House, “Remarks by President Biden on the American Jobs Plan,” April 7, 2021, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/speeches-remarks/2021/04/07/remarks-by-president-biden-on-the-american-jobs-plan-2/; The White House, Building Resilient Supply Chains, Revitalizing American Manufacturing, and Fostering Broad-Based Growth, June 2021, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/100-day-supply-chain-review-report.pdf.
6 Dale C. Copeland, The Origins of Major War (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000); John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001); William C. Wohlforth, “The Stability of a Unipolar World,” International Security 24, no. 1 (1999): 5-41.
7 “When Will China’s GDP Overtake America’s?,” Economist, June 7, 2023, https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2023/06/07/when-will-chinas-gdp-overtake-americas.
8 Graham Allison, Destined for War: Can American and China Escape Thucydides Trap? (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017); Alexandre Debs and Nuno P. Monteiro, “Known Unknowns: Power Shifts, Uncertainty, and War,” International Organization 68, no. 1 (2014): 1–31.
9 Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981).
10 Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), 131.
11 Edward Harllett Carr, The Twenty Years’ Crisis (New York: Harper, 2001[1939]), 108.
12 Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 46.
13 Michael Mastanduno, Economic Containment (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992).
14 Ronald Findlay and Kevin O’Rourke, Power and Plenty (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007); Robert Gilpin, Global Political Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).
15 Eli F. Heckscher, “Revisions in Economic History: V. Mercantilism,” Economic History Review 7, no. 1 (1936): 44-54.
16 Edward Mead Earle, “Adam Smith, Alexander Hamilton, Friedrich List: The Economic Foundations of Military Power,” in Peter Paret, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 217-254.
17 US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 2022 Annual Report to Congress, November 15, 2022, https://www.uscc.gov/annual-report/2022-annual-report-congress.
18 US-China Economic and Security Review Commission, 2021 Annual Report to Congress, November 17, 2021, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2021-11/2021_Annual_Report_to_Congress.pdf.
19 Dong Jung Kim, Compound Containment: A Reigning Power’s Military-Economic Countermeasures against a Challenging Power (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2022).
20 Jeffrey A, Frieden and Ronald Rogowski, “The Impact of International Economy on National Policies: An Analytical Overview,” in Robert Keohane and Helen Milner eds., Internationalization and Domestic Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 25-47; Dani Rodrik, Has Globalization Gone Too Far? (Washington DC: Institute for International Economics, 1997); Adrian Wood. “How Trade Hurt Unskilled Workers,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 3 (1995): 57-80.
21 Steven Rattner, “Biden’s Get-Tough-on-China Tariffs May Backfire,” New York Times, May 21, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/21/opinion/biden-china-tariffs.html.
22 For instance, see Cletus Coughlin, “The Controversy over Free Trade,” Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, 84, no. 1 (2002): 1-22; Elhanan Helpman, “The Structure of Foreign Trade,” Journal of Economic Perspectives 13, no. 2 (1999): 121-144; Paul R. Krugman, Maurice Obstfeld, and Marc J. Melitz, International Economics: Theory and Policy, 9th edition (New York: Addison-Wesley, 2012).
23 UN Comtrade Database, https://comtradeplus.un.org/.
24 “China Floats BRICS Free-Trade Deal, While Russia’s Vladimir Putin Calls for an Alternative to US Dollar,” South China Morning Post, June 23, 2022, https://www.scmp.com/economy/article/3182816/china-floats-brics-free-trade-deal-while-russias-putin-calls-alternative-us.
25 “Beijing Offers Muted Response to US Attempts at Reframing Relationship,” Peterson Institute for International Economics, May 8, 2023, https://www.piie.com/blogs/realtime-economics/beijing-offers-muted-response-us-attempts-reframing-relationship; US-China Business Council, US Exports to China 2023, https://www.uschina.org/sites/default/files/us_exports_to_china_2023_0.pdf.
26 David A. Baldwin, Economic Statecraft (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985); Albert O. Hirschman, National Power and the Structure of Foreign Trade (Berkeley: University of California Press, (1980[1945]).
27 Dong Jung Kim, “A Twenty Years’ Crisis? Rethinking the Cases for U.S. Economic Engagement with China,” Perspectives on Politics 22, no. 1 (2024): 280-293.
28 “What America’s Protectionist Turn Means for the World,” Economist, January 9, 2023, https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2023/01/09/what-americas-protectionist-turn-means-for-the-world.
29 “China Buys Near-Record $40 Billion of Chip Gear to Beat US Curbs,” Bloomberg, January 22, 2024, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-01-22/china-buys-near-record-40-billion-of-chip-gear-to-beat-us-curbs?embedded-checkout=true.
30 “China Bets on Open-Source Chips as US Export Controls Mount,” Reuters, February 4, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/technology/china-bets-open-source-chips-us-export-controls-mount-2024-02-05/.
31 Camille Gijs, Antonia Zimmerman and Pieter Haeck, “EU and US Vow to Team Up against China, but Can’t Hide the Cracks,” Politico, April 5, 2024, https://www.politico.eu/article/eu-us-trade-tech-council-vestager-vow-team-up-against-china-cant-hide-cracks/.
32 Noah Berman, Lindsay Maizland, and Andrew Chatzky, “Is China’s Huawei a Threat to U.S. National Security?” Council on Foreign Relations, February 8, 2023, https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-huawei-threat-us-national-security#chapter-title-0-6.
33 Huawei Investment and Holding Co., Ltd., 2020 Annual Report, https://www-file.huawei.com/minisite/media/annual_report/annual_report_2020_en.pdf.
34 “Huawei Returns to Global Stage with Focus on 5G and the Cloud,” Nikkei Asia, March 1, 2023, https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Technology/MWC-2023/Huawei-returns-to-global-stage-with-focus-on-5G-and-the-cloud.
35 “‘We Have Survived!’: China’s Huawei Goes Local in Response to US Sanctions,” Financial Times, May 2, 2023, https://www.ft.com/content/32f40217-dc3e-4e02-9433-0c20ae3d7d79; Rob Davies, “Huawei Shrugs Off US Sanctions with Fastest Growth in Four Years,” Guardian, March 29, 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2024/mar/29/huawei-shrugs-off-us-sanctions-with-fastest-growth-in-four-years.
36 “Huawei to Relaunch 5G Phone despite US Sanctions,” Financial Times, October 5, 2022, https://www.ft.com/content/0fd818a8-0858-46d4-8e77-81394935ab55.
37 Takashi Mochizuki and Yuki Furukawa, “China Taking on US Fuels $147 Billion Rally in Japanese Chip Stocks,” Bloomberg, February 13, 2024, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-02-13/china-taking-on-us-fuels-147-billion-rally-in-japan-chip-stocks?embedded-checkout=true.
38 Mastanduno, Economic Containment, 64-106.
39 Bruce W. Jentleson, Pipeline Politics: The Complex Political Economy of East-West Energy Trade (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986).
40 Ash Jain and Matthew Kroenig, “Ally Shoring: A New Tool of Economic Statecraft,” Orbis 67, no. 1 (2023): 21-26.
41 Eswar Prasad, “The World Will Regret Its Retreat from Globalization,” Foreign Policy, March 24, 2023, https://www.foreignpolicy.com/2023/03/24/trade-economy-globalization-united-states-china-ira-chips-reshoring-decoupling-industry-china/?utm_source=PostUp&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Editors%20Picks%20OC&utm_term=75906&tpcc=Editors%20Picks%20OC.
42 Adam Posen, “America’s Zero-Sum Economics Doesn’t Add Up,” Foreign Policy, March 24, 2023, https://www.foreignpolicy.com/2023/03/24/economy-trade-united-states-china-industry-manufacturing-supply-chains-biden/.
43 “China Leading US in Technology Race in All but a Few Fields, Thinktank Finds,” Guardian, March 2, 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/mar/02/china-leading-us-in-technology-race-in-all-but-a-few-fields-thinktank-finds.
44 Dong Jung Kim, “Realists as Free Traders: The Struggle for Power and the Case against Protectionism,” International Affairs 94, no. 6 (2018): 1269-1286.
45 Max Boot, “Biden Is Making the Same Mistake as Trump on China,” Washington Post, November 30, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/2022/11/30/biden-china-trade-policy-trump/; Anne O. Krueger, “Why Is America Undercutting Japan?” Project Syndicate, July 21, 2023, https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/us-subsidies-protectionism-damaging-japan-and-other-allies-by-anne-o-krueger-2023-07.
46 Sung Eun Kim and Yotam Margalit, “Tariffs As Electoral Weapons: The Political Geography of the US–China Trade War,” International Organization 75, no. 1 (2021): 1-38.
47 Kimberly A. Clausing and Mary E. Lovely, “Why Trump’s Tariff Proposals Would Harm Working Americans,” Policy Brief, Peterson Institute for International Economics, May 2024, https://www.piie.com/publications/policy-briefs/2024/why-trumps-tariff-proposals-would-harm-working-americans.
48 Sung Eun Kim and Krzysztof Pelc, “Trade Competition and Worker Compensation: Why Do Some Receive More than Others?,” International Studies Quarterly 65, no. 1 (2021): 109-121; Sung Eun Kim and Krzysztof Pelc, “How responsive Is Trade Adjustment Assistance?,” Political Science Research and Methods 9, no. 4 (2021): 889-898.