On the efficacy of current biosecurity measures at EU borders to prevent the transfer of zoonotic and livestock diseases by travellers

Figures & data

Table 1. The most important bacterial public health hazard related to dairy farming (¹ = A = through contact with animals; B = through animal products). Adapted from Smulders (2012).

Bacteria	Main on-farm sources	Main dairy–human link	Transfer^1
Bacillus anthracis	Soil; cows	Contact infection (e.g. during handling of skin or processing); rarely a food-borne disease.	A	(B)
Bacillus cereus	Cows; soil; vegetation	Via milk and beef		B
Brucella abortus	Cows	Contact infection (e.g. from handling infected animals/materials). Also via raw milk/milk products	A	(B)
VTEC	Cows; effluents; water; organic fertilisers	Mainly via meat and milk. Also via contact with cattle and associated environment	(A)	B
Campylobacter jejuni	Cows; effluents; water; organic fertilisers	Mainly via milk, and also via beef.		B
Clostridium perfringens	Cows; soil	Mainly via beef		B
Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis	Cows	Contact infection. Also from raw milk	A	(B)
Erysipelothrix rhusiopathia	Cows	Mainly contact infection	A
Leptospira spp	Cows; rodents; contaminated water	Contact infection, from infected animal or rodent's urine or contaminated water	A
Listeria monocytogenes	Soil; effluents; water; silage; cows	Mainly via milk and beef. Also contact infection from handling infected animals/ materials	(A)	B
Salmonella spp	Cows; water; effluents; organic fertilisers	Mainly via milk and beef		B
Staphylococcus aureus	Cows; humans	Mainly via milk and beef		B
Mycobacterium bovis	Cows	Primarily via milk; very rarely via beef		B
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis	Cows	Possibly via milk and, less likely, beef (debatable)		B
Yersinia enterocolitica	Cows; water	Mainly via milk		B
Coxiella burnetii (Q fever)	Cows; ticks	Via contact, aerosol and milk. Possibly via tick bites	A	B

Table 2. The four phases in biosecurity planning and execution (adapted after CAC 2011).

Phases in biosecurity planning & execution		Key wording of a phase
1	Hazard identification	Hazards in the area of public health and animal health
2	Risk identification	Risk factors associated with each hazard identified
3	Risk management	Risk management measures to eliminate or reduce hazards
4	Risk communication	Preparing documents, TV-radio material, teaching material and all other material to inform and educate the general public and all stakeholders

Table 3. Major examples of recent disease outbreaks in various countries.

Years	Disease	Countries involved
1999–2012	West Nile virus disease	USA
2012	Foot and mouth disease	Bulgaria
2012	Schmallenberg virus	Various countries in Western Europe
2012	Brucellosis	Belgium/France
2012	Newcastle disease	Italy
2012	Anthrax	Germany
2012	African Swine Fever	Russia
2012	Hanta virus disease	USA
2012	African horse sickness	Russia
2012	Human Swine Influenza HPAI H7N3	USA
2013	Human Avian Influenza H7N9	China
2013	Human Avian Influenza H5N1	Vietnam, Bangladesh, South Africa

Table 4. Customs embargos on the import of animals or food of animal origin from third countries for the control of introduction and spread of infectious diseases of animals and/or humans (UKBA 2012; NAO 2005; CBP 2013).

Luggage not allowed in the USA and the European Union Note: Prior notice for food importation is required if food is sent by the shop where the traveller had bought it originally
Biologicals (animal tissue, bacterial culture, fungi, birds, etc.)
Prepared food products (e.g. bush meat). Note: bakery products are allowed
Fish and wildlife & their products (eggs, bones, feather, etc.)
Fruits and vegetables unless under strict conditions
Meat (fresh, dried, canned and food products containing meat), livestock and poultry
Pet dogs and cats (USDA–APHIS check needed); pet birds (avian influenza H5N1)
Plants, seeds and soil (unless a specific permit is obtained for import)
All dairy products (cheese, milk, dried milk included)

Figure 1. Example of a ‘not to be missed’ warning billboard. Upon arrival in one of the international airports of Australia, one is confronted with, among others, this billboard. The text indicates the products that are forbidden from being imported. The traveller can dispose of such products in special bins located under the billboard (photograph courtesy H. Surborg).

Figure 2. A note on sampling procedures (after Noordhuizen et al. 2001).

Smulders FJM. 2012. How to balance food safety and animal welfare risks in primary animal production? In: Cannas da Silva J, editor. Keynote lecture at the XVIIth World Buiatrics Congress, Lisbon, Portugal, June 3–8, 2012, Proceedings of keynotes and round tables. p. 110–118.

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[CAC] Codex Alimentarius Commission. 2011. Principles and guidelines for the conduct of microbiological risk assessment, CAC /GL -77-2011.

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[UKBA] UK Border Agency. 2012. Available from: www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk

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[CBP] US Customs and Border Protection 2013. Available from: www.cbp.gov/xp and www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/travel/vacation.

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Noordhuizen JPTM, Frankena K, Thrusfield MV, Graat EAM. 2001. Application of quantitative methods in veterinary epidemiology (section: sample size estimation). 2nd ed. Wageningen, the Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers; p. 425.

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