Welcoming Immigrants

Figures & data

Figure 1. Welcoming cities and county governments.

Source: Welcoming America, 2018.

Table 1 Land use controversies involving immigrants.

Land use/spatial context	Regulatory tool and process	Controversy and critique
Commercial	Amendments to plans, changes to municipal code, ordinances, urban design standards, zoning; determination of public convenience; enforcement of public thoroughfare	Emphasis on uniformity and “universal” design principles limits the ability of immigrant-owned businesses to meet the needs of different cultures, penalizes the small business owner.
Ethnic districts	Racial zoning, special districts, redevelopment, historic overlays, code enforcement	Ethnic districts create opportunities but also reinforce segregation and prevent integration; in some cases, ethnic districts commodify culture for tourism.
Historic buildings and neighborhoods	Historic preservation control and protection measures, revitalization plans, architectural “blending” policies, established advisory boards	Eurocentric norms and sites, reclaiming and upscaling immigrant enclaves, exclusion from the planning process.
Neighborhoods	Creation of quality-of-life ordinances, changes to municipal code, enforcement of codes (property maintenance, parking, garage sales, residential occupancy, control of “nuisances”)	Imposition of neighborhood norms and standards based on the dominant culture and class values, often racially motivated.
Open space	Open space districts, community plans, horse-keeping ordinances, scenic corridor plans, minimum lot size	Maintenance of rural character exclusionary, community garden allowed only until higher or best use available.
Public spaces	Public declarations, changes to municipal code, privatization of public space, park programming and plans, reservation and permits process, licensing and fees, enforcement of trespassing, and anti-solicitation ordinances	Overregulation of public spaces (streets, sidewalks; parks, shopping districts); culturally biased standards and codes; resistance to economic, social, and sporting activities favored by immigrants.
Redevelopment	Demolition of “blighted” properties, aggressive code enforcement, historic designation, capital improvement projects, down- and upzoning, urban renewal, creation of BIDs, regulation of public space, special vendor districts, agreements about the market/subsidized units	Gentrification and displacement, removal of low-income housing, lack of representation on BIDs and community boards.
Regional planning and growth control	Annexation, development restrictions, downzoning, growth control policy, expediting the regulatory process for developers	Preferential treatment, elitism, slow growth proponents associating growth with immigrants, exclusion of immigrants in the planning process.
Religious	Moratoriums, denial of permits, conditional use permits, variances, traffic, design regulations, zoning restrictions (height limits, occupancy, hours of operation, parking, building materials, architectural detail, etc.)	Excessive conditions and restrictions, not evenly applied, bias against non-Christian religions.
Single-family residential	Zoning, special neighborhood zoning, adoption of new design guidelines, design review	Zoning inflexibility, resistance to increased density, lack of culturally appropriate housing choices, standards based on dominant cultural norms, protection of single-family homes.
Multifamily residential	General plan amendments, changes to municipal codes, downzoning, development standards, enforcement of residential occupancy, and other codes	Lack of affordable multifamily housing, limited allowable sites for new construction, renting to unauthorized immigrants restricted.

Note: BID = business improvement district.

Sources: Commercial: Harwood, 2005; Harwood & Myers, 2002; Kumar & Martin, 2004; Pincetl, 1994; Qadeer, 1997; Sandercock, 2000; ethnic districts: Gotham, 2007; Hall & Rath, 2007; Lin, 1998; Loukaitou-Sideris & Soureli, 2012; historic preservation: Armstrong, 1994; Dubrow, 1998; Lin, 1998; Liu & Geron, 2008; Võ, 2006; neighborhood quality of life: Burayidi, 2003; Crawford, 2014; Harwood, 2005; Harwood & Myers, 2002; Jones-Correa, 2006; Martos, 2010; Pader, 2002; Qadeer, 1997; multifamily residential: Esbenshade et al., 2010; Gilbert, 2009; Harwood & Myers, 2002; Vitiello, 2014; open space: Barraclough, 2009; public space: Crawford, 1995; Davis, 1999; Dines, 2002; Germain & Gagnon, 2003; Gilbert, 2009; Harwood & Myers, 2002; Loukaitou-Sideris & Ehrenfeucht, 2014; Radher & Milgrom, 2004; Rishbeth, 2001; Theodore & Martin, 2007; Valenzuela, 2003; Vallianatos, 2014; Varsanyi, 2008; Watson, 1992; Watson & McGillivray, 1994; redevelopment: Betancur, 2002; Hum, 2014; Lipsitz, 2007; Radher & Milgrom, 2004; Theodore & Martin, 2007; regional planning and growth control: Jones-Correa, 2006; Kondo, 2012; Turner & Murray, 2001; religious: Allor, 1994; Biondo, 2006; Gale, 2008; Gale & Naylor, 2002; Germain & Gagnon, 2003; Harwood, 2005; Isin & Siemiatycki, 2002; Meck, 2001; Qadeer, 1997; Sandercock, 2000; and single-family residential: Li, 1994; Lung-Amam, 2013; Mukhija, 2014; Qadeer, 1997; Watson & McGillivray, 1994.

Table 2 Land use strategies for welcoming cities.

Land use	Goal	Strategy
Residential	Develop diverse housing types and neighborhood differentiation	1) Institute inclusionary zoning. 2) Modify zoning codes to promote co-housing, cooperative housing, flex housing, higher density housing, accessory dwelling units, senior homes, multigenerational housing. 3) Review building, safety, public health codes, and planning standards, particularly for occupancy densities, household use, and the definition of a family.
Places of worship and other religious-based development	Facilitate the development of places of worship and plan for long-term growth to avoid conflicts	1) Assist with siting. 2) Identify which land use categories are most appropriate and permit the use (commercial, residential, mixed use, industrial, institutional). 3) Develop block-level plans and growth policies to address future parking and traffic. 4) Encourage infill development. 5) Develop policies that allow for differences in time, architectural features, site design, seating arrangements, facilities (residential, educational, cultural, health, recreational, leisure), and use of public space.
Parks and open space	Diversify the uses and users of parks and open spaces	1) Develop appropriate programming, management, and design that support a range of cultural experiences. 2) Build in flexibility to accommodate cultural preferences for sports and clubs.
Retail and commercial	Support local immigrant-owned businesses	1) Develop retail area plans. 2) Condominium–mall development approval criteria with specifics about land use, site access, parking standards, traffic capacities, signage requirements, landscaping, and urban design. 3) Encourage informal design elements, graffiti art, street vending, and other practices that animate the urban landscape.
Hiring sites	Provide safe and legal hiring sites	1) Adopt zoning ordinances to allow for hiring sites. 2) Designate specific locations with access to water, restrooms, public transit, and parking.
Home-based business	Create opportunities for income-generating activities in the home	1) Determine criteria for regulating home-based business (noise, parking, working conditions). 2) Help growing home-based businesses transition to more appropriate locations. 3) Zone for mixed use to encourage home-based businesses.
Street and sidewalk vending	Legalize and incentivize informal vending	1) Rethink vision of public spaces. 2) Create a straightforward permit/license process. 3) Remove restriction on esthetics. 4) Create a “one-stop shop” for training and permits. 5) Create vendor districts. 6) Incorporate vendors into BID. 7) Remove differentiated regulations that favor gourmet food trucks over street vending.

Note: BID = business improvement district.

Sources: Parks and open space: Loukaitou-Sideris, 1995; Özgüner, 2011; Price & Whitworth, 2004; Qadeer, 2009; Rishbeth, 2001; Thompson, 2003; Watson, 1992; Watson & McGillivray, 1994; vendor districts and street/sidewalk vendors: Ball, 2002; Browne et al., 2014; Hum, 2014; Kettles, 2014; Martin, 2014; Vallianatos, 2014; home-based businesses: Crawford, 2014; Kim et al., 2018; Watson & McGillivray, 1994; cultural symbols, arches, churches, and monuments: Hume, 2015; providing hiring sites: Valenzuela, 2014; alternative housing: Burayidi, 2003; Pruegger & Cook, 2009; Qadeer, 1997; Watson & McGillivray, 1994; retail and commercial: Hoernig, 2009; Loukaitou-Sideris, 2012; Zhuang, 2009; places of worship and other religious-based development: Agrawal, 2009; Gale, 1999; Hoernig, 2009; and ethnic neighborhoods and commercial districts: Gotham, 2007; Hall & Rath, 2007; Li, 1994; Loukaitou-Sideris & Soureli, 2012.

Table 3 Cities with immigrant affairs office (Office), Immigrant integration plan (Plan), and Welcoming America membership (Member).

	Entire sample	%	Interviewed	%
Office, plan, member	17	0.24	13	0.43
Office only	14	0.20	7	0.23
Member + office	12	0.17	6	0.20
Member only	23	0.32	2	0.07
Member + plan	3	0.04	1	0.03
Plan + office	2	0.03	1	0.03
Plan only	0	0.00	0	0.00
Total	71	1.00	30	1.00

Table 4 Immigrant integration plans.

Major component	Examples of strategies and initiatives
Economy	Assistance to small businesses, promotion of patronage, workforce development, hiring initiatives, retention of foreign students
Education	Vocational, literacy, and language programs; early childhood education; financial literacy
Public safety	Crime prevention, legal assistance, emergency preparedness, fraud awareness, local protection for undocumented
Services	Public health, wellness, mobility, naturalization, housing, mentoring, language access (translation, interpretation), service outreach, rights awareness, parent mentoring and support
Service providers and front-line staff	Intercultural training, staff capacity/language training, immigrant-centered training, intra/intergovernmental cooperation
Culture and community	Cultural events, interaction and building relationships, support for immigrant community organizations, building awareness about immigrants
Civic engagement and representation	Special offices for immigrant affairs, welcoming ordinances, mechanisms for representation, collection of data/metadata, shaping regional/national narratives

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