Empowering marginalised groups for inclusive tourism: a call for critical studies

Figures & data

Table 1. Conceptualisation of Marginalisation (Adapted from Messiou, 2012).

Experienced by	Recognition by
Individual	Recognised by individuals and others
Individual	Recognised by individuals but not by others
Labeled as marginalised	Not recognised by the individual but labeled by others as belonging to a marginalised community.
Individual	Denied by the individual

Table 2. Hall's properties of marginalisation with contextualised tourism examples.

Properties	Contextualised meaning for tourism spaces	Example
Intermediacy	Boundaries for separation and protection also cover territorial invasion and the dangers of living in conflicted geographies.	Limited travel access for migrants and refugees (Pappas & Papatheodorou, 2017)
Differentiation	Structures stemming from cultural and personal uniqueness/rarity also cover the stigmatisation of cultures and populations.	Black travel experiences and harassment (Park et al., 2022)
Power	Access to tangible and intangible resources within a tourism space also includes the advantages associated with enforcement capacity and legacy.	Accessibility issues for disabled tourists (Darcy & Pegg, 2011; Patterson et al., 2012)
Secrecy	Controlling of information sharing regarding self and group – how they are portrayed; also includes the advantages that come with the access to insider knowledge and resources.	Gatekeeping of LGBTQ individuals (Ong et al., 2022)
Reflectiveness	Events and processes that force the development of survival skills due to constant vigilance or attention in a tourism space; also includes over-analysis of social encounters.	Autoethnographic account of solo female researchers during fieldwork (Manfreda & Ye, 2022)
Voice	Acceptance/rejection or validation/invalidation of expression of one's experiences; also covers addressing/dismissal of lived experiences.	Harassment against solo female travellers (Wilson & Little, 2011)
Liminality	Experiences considered rare and opportunities of limited generalisation; also covers risks associated with alienation.	Experience of caregivers for individuals with disability (Lehto et al., 2018)
Exteriority	Process of establishing how an individual is not a part of the system.	Accessibility issues for disabled tourists (Darcy & Pegg, 2011; Patterson et al., 2012)
Constraint	Physical restriction experienced due to being trapped in violent geographies; also includes physical exploitation.	Sanctions on travel (Seyfi et al., 2022; Seyfi & Hall, 2020)
Eurocentrism	Ideology that puts European and North American elements (languages, skin colour, culture, food and others) over and above everything; also covers that any other element should, and must, revolve around those central elements of whiteness.	Production of tourism knowledge (Wijesinghe et al., 2019); Mobility discussions in the world beyond Europe (Cohen & Cohen, 2015)
Economics	Discussion or survival and otherwise; also covers access to food, clothing, shelter and jobs that can ensure the same.	Discriminatory hiring practices against refugees in hotels (Underthun & Jordhus-Lier, 2017; Wendt et al., 2020)
Seduction	Exoticization and commodification of tourism products (people, culture and destinations); also covers depersonalisation.	Exoticism of tourism destinations (Minca, 2000)
Testimonies	Acknowledgement of personal statements and narratives; also includes validation and education.	Testimonies of children involved in dark tourism (Israfilova & Khoo-Lattimore, 2018)
Hope	Positive view towards future; also includes perceptions of liberation related to involvement in the tourism ecosystem and being a beneficiary in it.	Economic upliftment/poverty eradication via tourism (Briedenhann & Wickens, 2004)

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