Designing relational feedback: a rapid review and qualitative synthesis

Figures & data

Table 1. Keywords and search field.

Group	Keywords	Search field
Feedback	feedback, feedback characteristic(s), feedback feature(s), feedback content, feedback construction, feedback design(s)	Title or Abstract
Relational	relational practice, relational dimension, relational value(s), teacher-student relationship(s), student-teacher relationship(s), relationality, emotional response(s), emotional engagement, dialogic interaction(s), social practice(s), social aspect(s), social context(s)	Title or Abstract
Education	instructor(s), teacher(s), educator(s), learner(s), student(s)	All fields

Table 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

No.	Type	Description
1	Inclusion	Study that suggests characteristics of feedback that benefit building student-teacher relationships
2	Inclusion	Study that suggests characteristics of feedback that evoke students positive or negative emotions
3	Inclusion	Study that measures the effects of characteristics of feedback on students emotional responses
4	Inclusion	Study that measures the effects of characteristics of feedback on relationship building
5	Inclusion	Peer-reviewed papers
6	Exclusion	Non-English written papers
7	Exclusion	Incomplete studies
8	Exclusion	Non-higher education contexts

Figure 1. Flow diagram showing study selection process.

Table 3. Fields extracted from the included studies.

No.	Field	Description
1	ID	Unique identifier for the study.
2	Title	Title of the paper.
3	Year	Year in which the paper was published.
4	Study type	For example, conceptual study and empirical study.
5	Feedback mode	For example, text-based feedback.
6	Descriptions of relational characteristics of feedback	For example, provide reassurance about students’ strengths.

Figure 2. The number of included publications by year.

Figure 3. The distribution of included publications by feedback mode.

Table 4. Characteristics of relational feedback.

No.	Characteristics	Examples	Related works
Group 1: Clarifying performance
1.1	Clarify the reason for the grade	"Your essay’s grade was reduced by five marks due to a few grammatical errors."	Schwartz 2017; Ahmed Shafi et al. 2018; Bastola and Hu 2021; Middleton et al. 2023; Yang et al. 2023
1.2	Acknowledge the strengths of students performance	"Your essay demonstrates a deep understanding of the topic."	Van De Vliert et al. 2004; Jones et al. 2012; Rubic 2017; Schwartz 2017; Ahmed Shafi et al. 2018; Racheva 2018; Hill et al. 2021; Heron et al. 2023; Middleton et al. 2023
1.3	Balanced critical feedback	"Your essay demonstrates a good understanding of the topic; however, it contains some grammatical errors."	Yang and Carless 2013; Schwartz 2017; Ahmed Shafi et al. 2018; Hill et al. 2021; Heron et al. 2023
Group 2: Suggesting improvement
2.1	Identify areas for improvement	"The clarity of your essay could be improved."	Jones et al. 2012; Schwartz 2017; Racheva 2018; Bastola and Hu 2021; Hill et al. 2021; Yang et al. 2023
2.2	Inform methods to improve work	"More focused paragraphs would greatly enhance the overall clarity of your essay."	Robinson, Pope, and Holyoak 2013; Ahmed Shafi et al. 2018; Hill et al. 2021; Middleton et al. 2023
2.3	Actionable information	"To strengthen your argument, provide more specific examples and cite relevant research to support your claims."	Ahmed Shafi et al. 2018; Middleton et al. 2023
Group 3: Inviting further communication
3.1	Request clarification	"Could you please clarify your main argument?"	Heron et al. 2023
3.2	Advance student thinking	"Consider exploring alternative perspectives to deepen your analysis."	Ajjawi and Boud 2017; Rubic 2017; Carless and Winstone 2023; Heron et al. 2023
Group 4: Evoking positive emotions
4.1	Positive appreciation	"Thank you for your effort in researching and writing this essay."	Schwartz 2017; Kim and Lee 2019; Bastola and Hu 2021; Hill et al. 2021; Heron et al. 2023
4.2	Showing empathy	"Your essay shows a great deal of effort and personal reflection, and I can see how much you care about the topic. Let’s work together to further develop your ideas and enhance your writing skills."	Yang and Carless 2013; Robinson, Pope, and Holyoak 2013; Ajjawi and Boud 2017; Schwartz 2017; Bastola and Hu 2021; Payne, Ajjawi, and Holloway 2022; Carless and Winstone 2023
4.3	Phrasing feedback in a positive manner	"Your essay has the potential to be more persuasive with a bit more detail and analysis in your arguments."	Van De Vliert et al. 2004; Jones et al. 2012; Yang and Carless 2013; Robinson, Pope, and Holyoak 2013; Rubic 2017; Schwartz 2017; Ahmed Shafi et al. 2018; Racheva 2018; Kim and Lee 2019; Hill et al. 2021; Payne, Ajjawi, and Holloway 2022; Middleton et al. 2023; Carless and Winstone 2023; Yang et al. 2023
4.4	Phrasing feedback in a polite manner	"To make your essay more persuasive, you could consider incorporating more varied perspectives."	Ajjawi and Boud 2017; Bastola and Hu 2021; Hill et al. 2021

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Ahmed Shafi, A., J. Hatley, T. Middleton, R. Millican, and S. Templeton. 2018. “The Role of Assessment Feedback in Developing Academic Buoyancy.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 43 (3): 415–427. doi:10.1080/02602938.2017.1356265.

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Bastola, M.N., and G. Hu. 2021. “Commenting on Your Work is a Waste of Time Only!: An Appraisal-Based Study of Evaluative Language in Supervisory Feedback.” Studies in Educational Evaluation 68: 100962. doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100962.

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Middleton, T., A. Ahmed Shafi, R. Millican, and S. Templeton. 2023. “Developing Effective Assessment Feedback: Academic Buoyancy and the Relational Dimensions of Feedback.” Teaching in Higher Education 28 (1): 118–135. doi:10.1080/13562517.2020.1777397.

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Yang, L., Y. Wu, Y. Liang, and M. Yang. 2023. “Unpacking the Complexities of Emotional Responses to External Feedback, Internal Feedback Orientation and Emotion Regulation in Higher Education: A Qualitative Exploration.” Systems 11 (6): 315. doi:10.3390/systems11060315.

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Van De Vliert, E., K. Shi, K. Sanders, Y. Wang, and X. Huang. 2004. “Chinese and Dutch Interpretations of Supervisory Feedback.” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 35 (4): 417–435. doi:10.1177/0022022104266107.

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Jones, H., L. Hoppitt, H. James, J. Prendergast, S. Rutherford, K. Yeoman, and M. Young. 2012. “Exploring Students Initial Reactions to the Feedback They Receive on Coursework.” Bioscience Education 20 (1): 3–21. doi:10.11120/beej.2012.20000004.

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Rubic, I. 2017. “Integrating Dialogic Pedagogy in Teaching ESP.” Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes 5 (1): 113–126. doi: 10.22190/JTESAP1701113R.

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Racheva, V. 2018. “Social Aspects of Synchronous Virtual Learning Environments.” In Proceedings of the 44th International Conference on Applications of Mathematics in Engineering and Economics 2048: 020032. Melville: AIP Publishing. doi:10.1063/1.5082050.

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Hill, J., K. Berlin, J. Choate, L. Cravens-Brown, L. McKendrick-Calder, and S. Smith. 2021. “Exploring the Emotional Responses of Undergraduate Students to Assessment Feedback: Implications for Instructors.” Teaching & Learning Inquiry 9 (1): 294–316. doi:10.20343/teachlearninqu.9.1.20.

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Heron, M., E. Medland, N. Winstone, and E. Pitt. 2023. “Developing the Relational in Teacher Feedback Literacy: Exploring Feedback Talk.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 48 (2): 172–185. doi:10.1080/02602938.2021.1932735.

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Yang, M., and D. Carless. 2013. “The Feedback Triangle and the Enhancement of Dialogic Feedback Processes.” Teaching in Higher Education 18 (3): 285–297. doi:10.1080/13562517.2012.719154.

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Robinson, S., D. Pope, and L. Holyoak. 2013. “Can we Meet Their Expectations? Experiences and Perceptions of Feedback in First Year Undergraduate Students.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 38 (3): 260–272. doi:10.1080/02602938.2011.629291.

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Ajjawi, R., and D. Boud. 2017. “Researching Feedback Dialogue: An Interactional Analysis Approach.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 42 (2): 252–265. doi:10.1080/02602938.2015.1102863.

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Carless, D., and N. Winstone. 2023. “Teacher Feedback Literacy and Its Interplay with Student Feedback Literacy.” Teaching in Higher Education 28 (1): 150–163. doi:10.1080/13562517.2020.1782372.

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Kim, E.J., and K.R. Lee. 2019. “Effects of an Examiners Positive and Negative Feedback on Self-Assessment of Skill Performance, Emotional Response, and Self-Efficacy in Korea: A Quasi-Experimental Study.” BMC Medical Education 19 (1): 142. doi:10.1186/s12909-019-1595-x.

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Payne, A.L., R. Ajjawi, and J. Holloway. 2022. “Humanising Feedback Encounters: A Qualitative Study of Relational Literacies for Teachers Engaging in Technology-Enhanced Feedback.” Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 48 (7): 903–914. doi:10.1080/02602938.2022.2155610.

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