Spike jump biomechanics in male versus female elite volleyball players

Figures & data

Figure 1. Overall time-frame and definition of phases, terms, and angles relative to the vertical axis

Note: Approach phase: From last ground contact of the non-dominant foot until first ground contact of the dominant foot during orientation step; Planting phase: From the end of the approach phase until reaching the lowest position of CoM; Push-off phase: From the end of the planting phase until last ground contact at take-off. Plant angle: Angle between CoM, foot-heel, and the projection of CoM on the floor; Δt-Take-off: Time difference between left and right foot take-off (normalised for trial duration).

Table 1. MANOVA and ANOVA results for females and males. Values are mean ± SD

Variable	Females	Males	P	pη²
Basic kinematics (MANOVA)			< .001	.91
Jump height [m]	0.37 ± 0.08	0.64 ± 0.09	< .001	.73
Orientation step length [m]	1.18 ± 0.16	1.52 ± 0.20	< .001	.49
Planting step length [m]	0.63 ± 0.12	0.24 ± 0.11	< .05	.15
Minimal CoM position [%]	21 ± 0	24 ± 0	< .05	.21
Plant angle [°]	75 ± 4	67 ± 3	< .001	.53
Approach speed [m∙s^−1]	2.88 ± 0.34	3.75 ± 0.38	< .001	.61
Torso incline angle [°]	33 ± 6	38 ± 4	< .05	.20
Non-dominant arm-to-vertical angle [°]	-111 ± 16	-114 ± 14	.48	.02
Dominant arm-to-vertical angle [°]	-107 ± 33	-115 ± 14	.37	.03
Relative time difference in take-off FP1-FP2 [%]	2.28 ± 1.16	1.59 ± 1.04	.10	.10
Minimal joint angles (MANOVA)			.10	.35
Non-dominant ankle flexion [°]	87 ± 7	89 ± 9	.39	.03
Dominant ankle flexion [°]	69 ± 3	71 ± 4	.12	.09
Non-dominant knee flexion [°]	121 ± 6	116 ± 7	.09	.10
Dominant knee flexion [°]	96 ± 6	90 ± 4	< .05	.21
Non-dominant hip flexion [°]	117 ± 13	108 ± 9	< .05	.14
Dominant hip flexion [°]	108 ± 11	97 ± 7	< .01	.26
Non-dominant shoulder hyperextension [°]	-89 ± 18	-82 ± 14	.24	.05
Dominant shoulder hyperextension [°]	-96 ± 18	-87 ± 17	.16	.07
Maximal angular velocities (MANOVA)			.11	.34
Non-dominant ankle extension [°∙s^−1]	686 ± 105	691 ± 106	.90	.00
Dominant ankle extension [°∙s^−1]	763 ± 165	794 ± 125	.56	.01
Non-dominant knee extension [°∙s^−1]	677 ± 412	757 ± 79	< .05	.16
Dominant knee extension [°∙s^−1]	778 ± 135	884 ± 61	< .05	.22
Non-dominant hip extension [°∙s^−1]	557 ± 95	643 ± 74	< .05	.22
Dominant hip extension [°∙s^−1]	591 ± 82	669 ± 86	< .05	.19
Non-dominant shoulder flexion [°∙s^−1]	810 ± 91	925 ± 122	< .01	.23
Dominant shoulder flexion [°∙s^−1]	830 ± 74	880 ± 78	.08	.10
Timing of maximal angular velocities (MANOVA)			.17	.07
Non-dominant ankle extension [%]	95.4 ± 0.9	94.6 ± 0.8	< .05	.21
Dominant ankle extension [%]	92.9 ± 1.8	93.8 ± 1.3	.15	.07
Non-dominant knee extension [%]	94.4 ± 0.9	92.8 ± 1.2	< .001	.38
Dominant knee extension [%]	92.5 ± 1.8	92.6 ± 1.4	.89	.00
Non-dominant hip extension [%]	94.2 ± 1.7	92.3 ± 3.6	.08	.10
Dominant hip extension [%]	93.1 ± 1.8	93.6 ± 1.6	.45	.02
Non-dominant shoulder flexion [%]	62.7 ± 8.8	63.3 ± 6.4	.810	.00
Dominant shoulder flexion [%]	64.0 ± 9.2	57.6 ± 5.3	< .05	.16
Maximal joint momentum (MANOVA)			< .001	.93
Non-dominant ankle extension [N∙m∙kg^−1]	0.032 ± 0.001	0.027 ± 0.003	< .001	.48
Dominant ankle extension [N∙m∙kg^−1]	0.038 ± 0.001	0.037 ± 0.001	< .001	.39
Non-dominant knee extension [N∙m∙kg^−1]	1.182 ± 0.060	1.144 ± 0.246	.56	.01
Dominant knee extension [N∙m∙kg^−1]	0.413 ± 0.044	0.527 ± 0.038	< .001	.68
Non-dominant hip extension [N∙m∙kg^−1]	0.277 ± 0.119	0.426 ± 0.161	< .01	.23
Dominant hip extension [N∙m∙kg^−1]	0.376 ± 0.074	0.346 ± 0.015	.13	.08
Mean muscle activation (MANOVA)			< .05	.91
Non-dominant gastrocnemius [%]	54 ± 9	61 ± 7	< .05	.17
Dominant gastrocnemius [%]	39 ± 9	41 ± 4	.47	.02
Non-dominant vastus medialis [%]	50 ± 7	54 ± 5	.13	.08
Dominant vastus medialis [%]	39 ± 9	49 ± 4	< .001	.37
Non-dominant rectus femoris [%]	49 ± 5	52 ± 8	.22	.05
Dominant rectus femoris [%]	36 ± 6	49 ± 3	< .001	.69
Non-dominant biceps femoris [%]	45 ± 4	39 ± 10	.05	.13
Dominant biceps femoris [%]	40 ± 6	34 ± 9	< .05	.14
Non-dominant gluteus maximus [%]	41 ± 8	50 ± 10	< .05	.19
Dominant gluteus maximus [%]	39 ± 9	42 ± 10	.38	.03
Kinetics (MANOVA)			< .001	.75
Maximal vertical force (FP1) [N∙kg^−1]	13.89 ± 1.85	13.95 ± 4.18	.96	.00
Maximal vertical force (FP2) [N∙kg^−1]	19.60 ± 3.79	20.42 ± 6.51	.68	.01
Difference in maximal vertical force (FP1-FP2) [N∙kg^−1]	5.71 ± 3.91	6.47 ± 3.69	.60	.01
Maximal horizontal force (FP1) [N∙kg^−1]	4.76 ± 1.45	6.83 ± 2.72	< .05	.20
Maximal horizontal force (FP2) [N∙kg^−1]	10.83 ± 3.01	10.66 ± 3.71	.89	.00
Horizontal impulse (FP1) [N∙kg^−1∙s]	0.76 ± 0.15	0.97 ± 0.33	< .05	.14
Horizontal impulse (FP2) [N∙kg^−1∙s]	1.31 ± 0.32	1.32 ± 0.46	.97	.00
Vertical impulse (FP1) [N∙kg^−1∙s]	4.35 ± 0.34	4.51 ± 0.53	.33	.03
Vertical impulse (FP2) [N∙kg^−1∙s]	2.95 ± 0.69	3.18 ± 1.12	.51	.02
Maximal vertical rate of force development (FP1) [N∙kg^−1∙s^−1]	28 ± 14	76 ± 42	< .001	.39
Maximal vertical rate of force development (FP2) [N∙kg^−1∙s^−1]	595 ± 176	1251 ± 465	< .001	.49

Torso incline angle: 0 = vertical upright position, positive value means forwards incline; arm-to-vertical angle: 0 = vertical downward position, negative value means backswing; relative time difference in take-off FP1-FP2: Expressed as positive values; shoulder hyperextension: 0 = arms and torso with identical orientation in sagittal plane, negative values means backswing of arms relative to torso; FP1 = force plate 1; FP2 = force plate 2.

Figure 2. Mean female and male values for maximal muscle activation of lower extremity muscles of the dominant and non-dominant side

Note: Differences (P< .05) between sexes are marked with * at the end of named muscle. FP1 = force plate 1 (contact with dominant leg); FP2 = force plate 2 (contact with non-dominant leg).The muscles are aligned in the order as reported by Bobbert and van Ingen Schenau (1988) to represent a proper activation pattern in skilled jumpers, i.e., proximal-to-distal order.

Table 2. Correlation of secondary variables. The selection includes variables related to biomechanical key aspects for the performance: approach, velocity transfer, upper body lean and arm swing

Variable 1	Variable 2	r	P
Approach speed	Orientation step length	.87	< .001
Approach speed	Planting step length	.08	.67
Approach speed	Plant angle	-.82	< .001
Approach speed	Timing D gastrocnemius activation	.52	< .01
Approach speed	Timing D vastus lateralis activation	.37	< .05
Approach speed	Timing D rectus femoris activation	.48	< .01
Approach speed	Timing D biceps femoris activation	.15	.42
Approach speed	Timing D gluteus maximus activation	-.52	< .01
Orientation step length	Maximal horizontal force (FP1)	.78	< .001
Orientation step length	Maximal horizontal force (FP2)	.52	< .01
Orientation step length	Horizontal impulse (FP1)	.77	< .001
Orientation step length	Horizontal impulse (FP2)	.36	.05
Plant angle	Maximal horizontal force (FP1)	-.72	< .001
Plant angle	Maximal horizontal force (FP2)	-.42	< .05
Plant angle	Horizontal impulse (FP1)	-.84	< .001
Plant angle	Horizontal impulse (FP2)	-.32	.09
Plant angle	Maximal vertical RFD (FP1)	-.59	< .01
Plant angle	Maximal vertical RFD (FP2)	-.67	< .001
* Upper body incline angle	ND arm-to-vertical angle	-.79	< .001
* Upper body incline angle	D arm-to-vertical angle	-.21	.27
Upper body incline angle	Maximal ND shoulder velocity	.38	< .05
Upper body incline angle	Maximal D shoulder velocity	.17	.37
ND arm-to-vertical angle	Maximal ND shoulder velocity	-.62	< .001
D arm-to-vertical angle	Maximal D shoulder velocity	-.02	.91

FP1 = force plate 1; FP2 = force plate 2; D = dominant; ND = non-dominant; RFD = rate of force development; *partial correlation with shoulder angle as control variable.

Figure 3. Multivariate regression analyses between jump height and approach velocity, vertical CoM decrease, torso incline, and plant angle, including sex as control variable

Note: CoM = centre of mass. P_x = Significance value for the influence of the variable on the x-axis on jump height in the derived regression model.

Figure 4. Multivariate regression analyses between jump height and maximal angular velocity of dominant and non-dominant knees and shoulders, including sex as control variable

Note: D = dominant; ND = non-dominant. P_x = Significance value for the influence of the variable on the x-axis on jump height in the derived regression model.

Bobbert, M. F., & van Ingen Schenau, G. J. (1988). Coordination in vertical jumping. Journal of Biomechanics, 21(3), 249–262.

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