A self-determination theory based investigation of life skills development in youth sport

Figures & data

Table 1. Reliability Coefficients, Means Scores, Standard Deviations, and Correlations for All Variables

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	17	18
1. Autonomy support	–
2. Controlling coaching	−.27***	–
3. Autonomy satisfaction	.64***	−.18**	–
4. Competence satisfaction	.49***	−.09	.82***	–
5. Relatedness satisfaction	.49***	−.11	.75***	.69***	–
6. Total need satisfaction	.61***	−.15**	.96***	.89***	.88***	–
7. Autonomy frustration	−.26***	.61***	−.17**	−.07	−.09	−.13*	–
8. Competence frustration	−.24***	.63***	−.21***	−.19**	−.13*	−.20***	.72***	–
9. Relatedness frustration	−.18**	.57***	−.21***	−.13*	−.19**	−.20***	.62***	.73***	–
10. Total need frustration	−.25***	.67***	−.22***	−.14*	−.15**	−.20***	.88***	.92***	.88***	–
11. Teamwork	.36***	−.06	.47***	.40***	.51***	.51***	−.08	−.08	−.15**	−.12*	–
12. Goal setting	.39***	−.03	.51***	.49***	.44***	.53***	−.06	−.07	−.09	−.08	.52***	–
13. Social skills	.36***	−.09	.45***	.40***	.55***	.51***	−.07	−.04	−15*	−.10	.67***	.44***	–
14. Problem solving	.42***	−.03	.49***	.46***	.46***	.52***	−.004	.000	−.03	−.01	.55***	.59***	.59***	–
15. Emotional skills	.32***	.003	.50***	.49***	.49***	.54***	.02	.000	−.03	−.004	.47***	.50***	.53***	.59***	–
16. Leadership	.41***	−.03	.59***	.52***	.65***	.64***	−.05	−.07	−.16**	−.10	.73***	.57***	.66***	.63***	.61***	–
17. Time management	.32***	.04	.54***	.51***	.53***	.57***	.03	.02	−.03	.01	.45***	.56***	.48***	.54***	.53***	.55***	–
18. Communication	.49***	−.02	.60***	.52***	.61***	.63***	−.02	−.06	−.09	−.06	.55***	.47***	.65***	.62***	.62***	.67***	.56***	–
Mean score	4.08	2.21	5.64	5.70	5.59	5.64	3.13	2.62	2.36	2.70	4.11	3.91	3.75	3.55	3.62	3.84	3.68	3.85
Standard deviation	0.83	1.03	1.04	1.08	1.13	0.99	1.58	1.54	1.53	1.38	0.70	0.86	0.88	0.95	1.05	0.80	0.96	0.87
Range	1–5	1–5	1–7	1–7	1–7	1–7	1–7	1–7	1–7	1–7	1–5	1–5	1–5	1–5	1–5	1–5	1–5	1–5
Alpha values	.94	.92	.90	.88	.85	.95	.88	.91	.89	.94	.86	.93	.85	.90	.88	.91	.86	.82

N = 309. Problem solving = problem solving & decision making; Communication = interpersonal communication skills.

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Table 2. Indirect Effects of Coach Autonomy Support on Participants’ Development of Each Life Skills Through the Three Mediators

	Bootstrap effect	Normal effect	Normal theory tests			95% CI
			SE	z	p
Teamwork
Total indirect effect	.22	.22	.04	6.07	<.001	[.15, .30]
Autonomy satisfaction	.08	.08	.06	1.50	.13	[−.03, .20]
Competence satisfaction	−.001	−.001	.04	−.02	.99	[−.09, .08]
Relatedness satisfaction	.13	.13	.03	3.84	<.001	[.06, .23]
Model F(10, 289) = 14.54***, R^2 = .33, Cohen’s f^2 = .49
Goal setting
Total indirect effect	.29	.29	.04	6.48	<.001	[.20, .40]
Autonomy satisfaction	.14	.14	.07	2.03	.04	[−.01, .31]
Competence satisfaction	.11	.11	.05	2.38	.02	[.02, .23]
Relatedness satisfaction	.04	.04	.04	0.94	.35	[−.04, .12]
Model	F(10, 289) = 13.43***, R^2 = .32, Cohen’s f^2 = .47
Social skills
Total indirect effect	.29	.29	.05	6.22	<.001	[.18, .41]
Autonomy satisfaction	.01	.01	.07	0.10	.92	[−.14, .15]
Competence satisfaction	.02	.02	.05	0.52	.61	[−.06, .12]
Relatedness satisfaction	.23	.23	.05	4.93	<.001	[.13 .35]
Model	F(10, 289) = 14.65***, R^2 = .34, Cohen’s f^2 = .52
Problem solving
Total indirect effect	.29	.29	.05	6.01	<.001	[.19, .42]
Autonomy satisfaction	.09	.09	.08	1.22	.22	[−.08, .27]
Competence satisfaction	.09	.09	.05	1.72	.08	[−.02, .22]
Relatedness satisfaction	.10	.10	.05	2.18	.03	[.01, .21]
Model	F(10, 289) = 12.34***, R^2 = .30, Cohen’s f^2 = .43
Emotional skills
Total indirect effect	.42	.42	.06	7.20	<.001	[.29, .57]
Autonomy satisfaction	.13	.13	.09	1.50	.13	[−.05, .32]
Competence satisfaction	.13	.13	.06	2.14	.03	[.02, .27]
Relatedness satisfaction	.15	.15	.05	2.90	.004	[.05, .27]
Model	F(10, 289) = 12.73***, R^2 = .31, Cohen’s f^2 = .45
Leadership
Total indirect effect	.35	.35	.04	8.19	<.001	[.25, .46]
Autonomy satisfaction	.10	.10	.06	1.85	.06	[−.01, .24]
Competence satisfaction	.02	.02	.04	0.62	.54	[−.06, .11]
Relatedness satisfaction	.21	.21	.04	5.31	<.001	[.13, .31]
Model	F(10, 289) = 25.27***, R^2 = .47, Cohen’s f^2 = .89
Time management
Total indirect effect	.42	.42	.05	7.86	<.001	[.30, .55]
Autonomy satisfaction	.19	.19	.08	2.58	.01	[.03, .38]
Competence satisfaction	.10	.10	.05	1.92	.054	[−.02, .23]
Relatedness satisfaction	.13	.13	.04	2.80	.005	[.04, .24]
Model	F(10, 289) = 16.13***, R^2 = .36, Cohen’s f^2 = .56
Communication
Total indirect effect	.34	.34	.04	7.63	<.001	[.22, .48]
Autonomy satisfaction	.13	.13	.06	2.00	.046	[−.002, .27]
Competence satisfaction	.02	.02	.04	0.53	.59	[−.06, .12]
Relatedness satisfaction	.18	.18	.04	4.43	<.001	[.10, .29]
Model	F(10, 289) = 23.97***, R^2 = .45, Cohen’s f^2 = .82

N= 309. Gender, age group, controlling coaching, and autonomy, competence, and relatedness frustration were entered as covariates in each model. 20,000 bootstrap resamples and 95% bias corrected confidence intervals were used. CI = confidence interval; Problem solving = problem solving & decision making; Communication = interpersonal communication skills.

***p < .001.

Figure 1. Models predicting all eight life skills. Values signify unstandardized regression coefficients. The direct effect of coach autonomy support on each of the life skills are outside the parentheses. The total effects are inside the parentheses. Gender, age group, controlling coaching, and autonomy, competence, and relatedness frustration were entered as covariates in all models.

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

Figure 2. Models predicting all eight life skills. Values signify unstandardized regression coefficients. The direct effect of coach autonomy support on each of the life skills are outside the parentheses. The total effects are inside the parentheses. Gender, age group, controlling coaching, and autonomy, competence, and relatedness frustration were entered as covariates in all models.

*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.