Why is a flamingo named as pelican and asparagus as celery? Understanding the relationship between targets and errors in a speeded picture naming task

Figures & data

Figure 1. The distribution of naming errors of the Primary Analyses for the differences between target and error values for typicality (Panel A) and number of semantic features (Panel B), and the semantic similarity measure (Panel C). Note. The black dashed line indicates the average difference between target and error for the respective semantic variable.

Table 1. Counts and percentage of errors of each error type included in the Primary Analyses.

Broad category	Error type	Count	% of errors
Semantic errors	Coordinate	1677	85.30
	Semantic other	92	4.68
	Part-whole relationship	23	1.17
	Associate	8	0.41
	Superordinate	3	0.15
Other errors	Unrelated	111	5.65
	Visual	29	1.48
	Phonologically related word	22	1.12
	Compound	1	0.05
	Total	1966	100.00

Table 2. Summarized findings of the Primary Analyses and Supplementary Analyses Sets 1 and 2 with typicality, number of semantic features, or semantic similarity as dependent variables.

Semantic variable	Primary Analyses	Supplementary analyses
		Supplementary Analyses Set 1 (coordinate errors)	Supplementary Analyses Set 2 (excluding semantic similarity)
	n = 1966 errors	n = 1677 coordinate errors	n = 2349 errors	n = 1917 coordinate errors
Typicality	error > target	n.s.	error > target	error > target
Number of semantic features	error > target	error > target	error > target	error > target
Semantic similarity	error < neighbours on average	n.s.	n/a	n/a

Note. The outcomes of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 with separate values of the psycholinguistic variables for the target and the response are not reported here as they yielded the same outcomes as the Primary Analyses and Supplementary Analyses Sets 1 and 2.

n/a – not appropriate, the model with semantic similarity as a dependent variable could only be run on the smaller number of errors, for which information on semantic similarity was available.

n.s. – non-significant effect of the semantic variable; error > target indicates that the value of the semantic variable was higher in the naming error than the target error; error < neighbours on average indicates that the value of the semantic variable was lower in the error than the target’s semantic neighbours on average.

Table A1. Response coding with examples.

Broad category	Response type	Example
Correct	Correctly pronounced target word	sofa for sofa
	Correct response with determiner	a sofa for sofa
	Disfluency on the initial phoneme/syllable	s sofa for sofa
	Hesitations	eh sofa for sofa
	Elaborations	red sofa for sofa
Semantic errors	Superordinate	fruit for apple
	Subordinate	pound for coin
	Coordinate (category-based)	duck for swan
	Associate	smoothie for blender
	Semantic other	beetle for turkey
	Part-whole relationship	brick for wall
	Incomplete response	/okt / for squid
	Semantic then phonological error (words and non-words)	/riger / for lion (mediated via tiger)
Other errors	Abbreviations	sub for submarine
	Unrelated: words with no semantic or phonological relationship to the target (<50% of phonemes shared)	animal for guitar
	Part of compound	straw for strawberry
	Disfluencies with self-correction	p desk for desk
	Synonyms	bunny for rabbit
	Visual (not semantically related; can be a picture part)	lipstick for bullet
	False starts (< 1 syllable)	br for broccoli br for cabbage
	Nonwords	/adewawa / for apple
	Phonological: word or nonword	bug for mug /vulet / for bullet
	Morphological-semantic-phonological	paint for painting
Omissions	No responses	-
	Expression of failure	I don’t know

Table B1. Summary of Primary Analyses linear mixed model for typicality (n = 1966 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	106.02	10.29
Participant (Intercept)	0.62	0.78
Residual	68.14	8.25
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of typicality	2.52	0.81–4.22	.004
Number of semantic features	5.06	4.32–5.80	<.001	1.23
Semantic similarity	0.69	0.12–1.26	.018	1.09
Frequency	−2.61	−3.47 – −1.75	<.001	1.85
Familiarity	4.01	3.30–4.73	<.001	1.45
Length	−0.99	−1.90 – −0.08	.033	1.29
AoA	−0.20	−1.26–0.86	.709	2.42
Imageability	0.14	−0.96–1.24	.807	2.24
Perseverations	−0.90	−1.86–0.05	.064	1.20
Category position	0.29	−0.26–0.84	.301	1.14
Observations: 1966
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.180/0.680

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table B2. Summary of Primary Analyses linear mixed model for number of semantic features (n = 1966 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	9.45	3.07
Participant (Intercept)	0.01	0.10
Residual	3.43	1.85
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of number of features	0.61	0.13–1.09	.013
Typicality	0.94	0.81–1.08	<.001	1.08
Semantic similarity	−0.04	−0.17–0.09	.525	1.10
Frequency	1.04	0.84–1.23	<.001	1.80
Familiarity	−0.14	−0.30–0.03	.115	1.55
Length	0.07	−0.14–0.28	.526	1.30
AoA	0.26	0.01–0.50	.040	2.45
Imageability	0.66	0.41–0.92	<.001	2.25
Perseverations	−0.06	−0.28–0.15	.565	1.20
Category position	−0.02	−0.15–0.10	.744	1.14
Observations: 1966
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.157/0.776

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table B3. Summary of Primary Analyses linear mixed model for semantic similarity (n = 1966 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	0.02	0.15
Participant (Intercept)	0.00	0.04
Residual	0.02	0.13
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of semantic similarity	−0.06	−0.09 – −0.03	<.001
Typicality	0.01	−0.00–0.02	.051	1.18
Number of semantic features	−0.00	−0.01–0.01	.653	1.23
Frequency	0.01	−0.01–0.02	.368	1.86
Familiarity	−0.03	−0.04 – −0.02	<.001	1.51
Length	0.03	0.01–0.04	<.001	1.28
AoA	0.03	0.01–0.04	.001	2.39
Imageability	0.02	0.00–0.03	.042	2.22
Perseverations	−0.06	−0.07 – −0.04	<.001	1.06
Category position	0.01	−0.00–0.01	.168	1.14
Observations: 1966
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.078/0.620

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table C1. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 1 linear mixed model for typicality on coordinate errors (n = 1677 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	120.42	10.97
Participant (Intercept)	0.27	0.52
Residual	27.60	5.25
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of typicality	1.68	−0.11–3.47	.065
Number of semantic features	5.58	4.94–6.22	<.001	1.28
Semantic similarity	1.61	0.99–2.24	<.001	1.08
Frequency	−3.37	−4.13 – −2.62	<.001	2.27
Familiarity	5.51	4.85–6.16	<.001	1.59
Length	−0.52	−1.25–0.21	.165	1.28
AoA	−0.10	−1.07–0.88	.844	2.76
Imageability	−0.92	−1.93–0.09	.073	2.59
Perseverations	0.25	−0.44–0.93	.477	1.23
Category position	0.05	−0.34–0.44	.806	1.18
Observations: 1677
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.246/0.860

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table C2. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 1 linear mixed model for number of semantic features on coordinate errors (n = 1677 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	10.31	3.21
Participant (Intercept)	0.01	0.09
Residual	2.13	1.46
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Number of features	1.09	0.57–1.60	<.001
Typicality	1.55	1.37–1.72	<.001	1.19
Semantic similarity	−0.47	−0.65 – −0.30	<.001	1.08
Frequency	1.29	1.09–1.50	<.001	2.19
Familiarity	−0.36	−0.56 – −0.16	<.001	1.84
Length	−0.07	−0.28–0.13	.485	1.28
AoA	−0.22	−0.49–0.06	.121	2.76
Imageability	0.41	0.13–0.69	.004	2.59
Perseverations	−0.24	−0.43 – −0.05	.012	1.23
Category position	0.02	−0.09–0.13	.750	1.18
Observations: 1677
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.280/0.877

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table C3. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 1 linear mixed model for semantic similarity on coordinate errors (n = 1677 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	0.02	0.14
Participant (Intercept)	0.00	0.01
Residual	0.01	0.08
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Semantic similarity	−0.00	−0.02–0.02	.944
Typicality	0.03	0.02–0.04	<.001	1.37
Number of features	−0.03	−0.04 – −0.02	<.001	1.47
Frequency	−0.00	−0.01–0.01	.966	2.34
Familiarity	−0.02	−0.03 – −0.01	.001	1.81
Length	0.00	−0.01–0.01	.724	1.27
AoA	0.03	0.01–0.04	.001	2.68
Imageability	0.01	−0.00–0.03	.118	2.53
Perseverations	−0.04	−0.05 – −0.03	<.001	1.19
Category position	0.00	−0.00–0.01	.133	1.18
Observations: 1677
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.069/0.749

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table D1. Counts and percentage of errors of each error type included in Supplementary Analyses Set 2.

Broad category	Error type	Count	% of errors
Semantic errors	Coordinate	1917	81.61
	Semantic other	117	4.98
	Part-whole relationship	54	2.30
	Associate	12	0.51
	Superordinate	3	0.13
Other errors	Unrelated	147	6.26
	Visual	71	3.02
	Phonologically related word	27	1.15
	Compound	1	0.04
	Total	2,349	100

Below are the full model outputs from models of Supplementary Analyses Set 2 analysing target-error relationships with regard to typicality and number of semantic features on all available observations (n = 2349) and all available coordinate errors (n = 1917).

Table D2. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 2 linear mixed model for typicality on all available data points (n = 2349 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	118.64	10.89
Participant (Intercept)	0.72	0.85
Residual	67.94	8.24
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of typicality	3.89	2.27–5.52	<.001
Number of semantic features	5.12	4.43–5.80	<.001	1.11
Frequency	−2.06	−2.85 – −1.28	<.001	1.79
Familiarity	3.55	2.91–4.19	<.001	1.42
Length	−0.91	−1.74 – −0.07	.033	1.27
AoA	−0.30	−1.26–0.65	.533	2.35
Imageability	0.12	−0.88–1.12	.807	2.08
Perseverations	−1.34	−2.20 – −0.48	.002	1.15
Category position	0.36	−0.16–0.89	.175	1.14
Observations: 2349
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.169/0.699

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table D3. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 2 linear mixed model for typicality on all available coordinate errors (n = 1917 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	118.16	10.87
Participant (Intercept)	0.42	0.65
Residual	26.31	5.13
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of typicality	3.17	1.52–4.82	<.001
Number of semantic features	5.33	4.73–5.93	<.001	1.27
Frequency	−3.36	−4.04 – −2.68	<.001	2.15
Familiarity	5.52	4.93–6.11	<.001	1.49
Length	−0.62	−1.31–0.07	.078	1.28
AoA	−0.78	−1.66–0.11	.087	2.66
Imageability	−1.07	−2.01 – −0.14	.025	2.51
Perseverations	−0.10	−0.72–0.51	.748	1.02
Category position	0.07	−0.30–0.43	.728	1.19
Observations: 1917
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.244/0.863

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table D4. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 2 linear mixed model for number of semantic features on all available data points (n = 2349 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	10.40	3.23
Participant (Intercept)	0.02	0.12
Residual	3.27	1.81
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of number of features	0.56	0.11–1.01	.015
Typicality	0.92	0.80–1.05	<.001	1.07
Frequency	1.02	0.85–1.19	<.001	1.73
Familiarity	−0.04	−0.18–0.11	.620	1.51
Length	0.25	0.06–0.44	.011	1.27
AoA	0.34	0.12–0.56	.002	2.38
Imageability	0.60	0.37–0.82	<.001	2.09
Perseverations	−0.09	−0.28–0.10	.340	1.17
Category position	0.02	−0.10–0.14	.723	1.14
Observations: 2349
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.135/0.793

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table D5. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 2 linear mixed model for number of semantic features on all available coordinate errors (n = 1917 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	10.81	3.29
Participant (Intercept)	0.01	0.09
Residual	2.03	1.43
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of number of features	0.81	0.32–1.30	.001
Typicality	1.48	1.31–1.65	<.001	1.21
Frequency	1.33	1.14–1.51	<.001	2.05
Familiarity	−0.29	−0.47 – −0.12	.001	1.74
Length	−0.06	−0.25–0.13	.542	1.28
AoA	0.05	−0.20–0.29	.715	2.68
Imageability	0.59	0.33–0.85	<.001	2.51
Perseverations	−0.18	−0.35 – −0.01	.044	1.02
Category position	0.04	−0.07–0.14	.483	1.19
Observations: 1917
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.250/0.881

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E1. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for typicality with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Primary Analyses on data points with complete information for semantic similarity measure, n = 1966 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	108.89	10.44
Participant (Intercept)	0.65	0.81
Residual	68.06	8.25
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of typicality	2.33	0.46–4.09	.010
Number of semantic features (target)	−4.11	−5.83 – −2.39	<.001	1.16
Number of semantic features (response)	3.93	3.32–4.53	<.001	1.14
Semantic similarity	0.71	0.14–1.29	.016	1.10
Frequency (target)	2.33	0.13–4.53	.038	1.90
Frequency (response)	−2.37	−3.17 – −1.57	<.001	1.91
Familiarity (target)	−4.40	−6.48 – −2.33	<.001	1.60
Familiarity (response)	4.87	4.00–5.75	<.001	1.59
Length (target)	0.71	−1.19–2.61	.464	1.37
Length (response)	−0.75	−1.45 – −0.05	.036	1.33
AoA (target)	1.92	−0.68–4.51	.148	2.55
AoA (response)	0.03	−0.94–0.99	.955	2.53
Imageability (target)	1.79	−0.58–4.16	.140	2.01
Imageability (response)	0.36	−0.52–1.23	.421	2.32
Perseverations	−0.92	−1.88–0.03	.058	1.20
Category position	0.30	−0.26–0.85	.291	1.15
Observations: 1966
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.179/0.685

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E2. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for typicality on coordinate errors with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Supplementary Analyses Set 1 on data points with complete information for semantic similarity measure, n = 1677 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	123.52	11.11
Participant (Intercept)	0.27	0.52
Residual	27.59	5.25
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of typicality	1.64	−0.21–3.50	.082
Number of semantic features (target)	−5.30	−7.21 – −3.39	<.001	1.19
Number of semantic features (response)	4.31	3.79–4.82	<.001	1.30
Semantic similarity	1.59	0.97–2.22	<.001	1.09
Frequency (target)	3.24	0.83–5.65	.008	1.95
Frequency (response)	−3.01	−3.70 – −2.33	<.001	2.31
Familiarity (target)	−7.12	−9.38 – −4.86	<.001	1.59
Familiarity (response)	6.60	5.80–7.40	<.001	1.69
Length (target)	0.74	−1.33–2.80	.485	1.38
Length (response)	−0.36	−0.91–0.18	.189	1.29
AoA (target)	0.88	−1.98–3.73	.546	2.68
AoA (response)	−0.01	−0.90–0.87	.979	2.87
Imageability (target)	1.60	−0.98–4.17	.225	2.10
Imageability (response)	−0.60	−1.39–0.19	.137	2.70
Perseverations	0.24	−0.45–0.93	.495	1.23
Category position	0.05	−0.34–0.44	.807	1.19
Observations: 1677
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.276/0.868

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E3. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for typicality on all available data points with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Supplementary Analyses Set 2, n = 2349 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	121.78	11.04
Participant (Intercept)	0.73	0.85
Residual	67.92	8.24
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of typicality	3.83	2.13–5.53	<.001
Number of semantic features (target)	−3.91	−5.53 – −2.29	<.001	1.12
Number of semantic features (response)	4.01	3.44–4.57	<.001	1.13
Frequency (target)	1.65	−0.32–3.63	.100	1.71
Frequency (response)	−1.88	−2.61 – −1.15	<.001	1.85
Familiarity (target)	−3.96	−5.88 – −2.04	<.001	1.52
Familiarity (response)	4.31	3.52–5.11	<.001	1.55
Length (target)	0.42	−1.26–2.11	.622	1.28
Length (response)	−0.70	−1.34 – −0.06	.032	1.29
AoA (target)	1.44	−0.90–3.79	.227	2.35
AoA (response)	−0.12	−0.99–0.76	.796	2.48
Imageability (target)	0.85	−1.42–3.11	.465	1.88
Imageability (response)	0.22	−0.57–1.01	.581	2.17
Perseverations	−1.35	−2.22 – −0.39	.002	1.16
Category position	0.37	−0.16–0.90	.168	1.15
Observations: 2349
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.164/0.702

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E4. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for typicality on all available coordinate errors with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Supplementary Analyses Set 2, n = 1917 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	119.29	10.92
Participant (Intercept)	0.42	0.65
Residual	26.31	5.13
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of typicality	3.07	1.36–4.78	<.001
Number of semantic features (target)	−5.63	−7.40 – −3.87	<.001	1.20
Number of semantic features (response)	4.07	3.59–4.56	<.001	1.29
Frequency (target)	3.61	1.50–5.72	.001	1.77
Frequency (response)	−2.98	−3.60 – −2.36	<.001	2.18
Familiarity (target)	−7.21	−9.27 – −5.15	<.001	1.55
Familiarity (response)	6.61	5.89–7.33	<.001	1.59
Length (target)	0.88	−0.91–2.67	.335	1.31
Length (response)	−0.44	−0.96–0.08	.096	1.30
AoA (target)	1.52	−1.03–4.07	.242	2.51
AoA (response)	−0.62	−1.42–0.18	.131	2.78
Imageability (target)	2.00	−0.40–4.40	.103	2.00
Imageability (response)	−0.70	−1.43–0.03	.060	2.62
Perseverations	−0.11	−0.73–0.50	.721	1.20
Category position	0.07	−0.30–0.44	.718	1.20
Observations: 1917
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.292/0.872

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E5. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for number of semantic features with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Primary Analyses on data points with complete information for semantic similarity measure, n = 1966 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	9.52	3.09
Participant (Intercept)	0.01	0.10
Residual	3.42	1.85
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of number of features	0.57	0.07–1.07	.024
Typicality (target)	−1.01	−1.45 – −0.57	<.001	1.09
Typicality (response)	1.00	0.85–1.15	<.001	1.11
Semantic similarity	−0.04	−0.17–0.09	.565	1.11
Frequency (target)	−1.06	−1.68 – −0.44	.001	1.82
Frequency (response)	0.91	0.73–1.09	<.001	1.85
Familiarity (target)	−0.19	−0.79–0.41	.536	1.59
Familiarity (response)	−0.17	−0.38–0.03	.096	1.64
Length (target)	−0.39	−0.93–0.16	.166	1.36
Length (response)	0.02	−0.14–0.18	.806	1.33
AoA (target)	−0.64	−1.38–0.11	.095	2.53
AoA (response)	0.20	−0.02–0.42	.071	2.52
Imageability (target)	−0.39	−1.06–0.29	.264	1.95
Imageability (response)	0.50	0.30–0.70	<.001	2.31
Perseverations	−0.06	−0.27–0.16	.608	1.21
Category position	−0.03	−0.16–0.10	.639	1.15
Observations: 1966
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.170/0.781

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E6. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for number of semantic features on coordinate errors with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Supplementary Analyses Set 1 on data points with complete information for semantic similarity measure, n = 1677 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	10.27	3.20
Participant (Intercept)	0.01	0.09
Residual	2.13	1.46
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Number of features	0.96	0.42–1.50	<.001
Typicality (target)	−1.39	−1.89 – −0.90	<.001	1.12
Typicality (response)	1.65	1.46–1.84	<.001	1.24
Semantic similarity	−0.47	−0.65 – −0.30	<.001	1.09
Frequency (target)	−1.39	−2.06 – −0.71	<.001	1.83
Frequency (response)	1.13	0.94–1.32	<.001	2.23
Familiarity (target)	0.21	−0.45–0.88	.526	1.66
Familiarity (response)	−0.42	−0.66 – −0.19	<.001	1.94
Length (target)	−0.28	−0.87–0.32	.361	1.38
Length (response)	−0.07	−0.22–0.08	.334	1.29
AoA (target)	−0.49	−1.31–0.33	.243	2.67
AoA (response)	−0.24	−0.49−0.01	.056	2.86
Imageability (target)	−0.31	−1.04–0.42	.405	2.04
Imageability (response)	0.29	0.08–0.51	.008	2.69
Perseverations	−0.24	−0.43 – −0.05	.013	1.23
Category position	0.01	−0.09–0.12	.788	1.19
Observations: 1677
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.278/0.876

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E7. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for number of semantic features on all available data points with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Supplementary Analyses Set 2, n = 2349 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	10.53	3.24
Participant (Intercept)	0.02	0.13
Residual	3.27	1.81
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of number of features	0.55	0.07–1.02	.023
Typicality (target)	−0.96	−1.37 – −0.55	<.001	1.07
Typicality (response)	0.98	0.85–1.11	<.001	1.10
Frequency (target)	−0.84	−1.40 – −0.28	.003	1.65
Frequency (response)	0.91	0.75–1.07	<.001	1.77
Familiarity (target)	−0.29	−0.84–0.26	.297	1.50
Familiarity (response)	−0.06	−0.24–0.12	.487	1.59
Length (target)	−0.35	−0.83–0.13	.156	1.27
Length (response)	0.17	0.02–0.31	.023	1.29
AoA (target)	−0.72	−1.39 – −0.05	.035	2.32
AoA (response)	0.26	0.07–0.46	.008	2.46
Imageability (target)	−0.41	−1.05–0.24	.213	1.84
Imageability (response)	0.44	0.26–0.61	<.001	2.15
Perseverations	−0.09	−0.28–0.10	.361	1.17
Category position	0.01	−0.10–0.13	.814	1.15
Observations: 2349
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.145/0.798

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E8. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for typicality on all available coordinate errors with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Supplementary Analyses Set 2, n = 1917 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	10.80	3.29
Participant (Intercept)	0.01	0.09
Residual	2.03	1.43
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of number of features	0.74	0.23–1.24	.005
Typicality (target)	−1.44	−1.91 – −0.97	<.001	1.12
Typicality (response)	1.57	1.40–1.75	<.001	1.26
Frequency (target)	−1.51	−2.12 – −0.90	<.001	1.65
Frequency (response)	1.16	0.99–1.32	<.001	2.08
Familiarity (target)	0.33	−0.30–0.96	.304	1.61
Familiarity (response)	−0.34	−0.56 – −0.12	.002	1.84
Length (target)	−0.50	−1.03–0.04	.070	1.30
Length (response)	−0.08	−0.23–0.06	.246	1.29
AoA (target)	−0.44	−1.20–0.32	.260	2.50
AoA (response)	0.01	−0.21–0.24	.904	2.78
Imageability (target)	−0.38	−1.09–0.33	.296	1.96
Imageability (response)	0.44	0.24–0.64	<.001	2.60
Perseverations	−0.17	−0.34 – −0.00	.047	1.20
Category position	0.04	−0.07–0.14	0.496	1.20
Observations: 1917
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.253/0.882

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E9. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for semantic similarity with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Primary Analyses on data points with complete information for semantic similarity measure, n = 1966 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	0.02	0.13
Participant (Intercept)	0.00	0.04
Residual	0.02	0.13
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Effect of semantic similarity	−0.06	−0.08 – −0.03	<.001
Typicality (target)	0.02	−0.00–0.04	.094	1.18
Typicality (response)	0.01	0.00–0.02	.013	1.25
Number of semantic features (target)	−0.01	−0.03–0.01	.423	1.21
Number of semantic features (response)	−0.00	−0.01–0.01	.548	1.24
Frequency (target)	−0.00	−0.03–0.03	.979	1.94
Frequency (response)	0.01	−0.01–0.02	.275	1.94
Familiarity (target)	−0.01	−0.03–0.02	.708	1.68
Familiarity (response)	−0.04	−0.05 – −0.03	<.001	1.70
Length (target)	0.02	−0.01–0.04	.225	1.37
Length (response)	0.03	0.02–0.04	<.001	1.33
AoA (target)	−0.04	−0.08 – −0.01	.018	2.58
AoA (response)	0.02	0.01–0.04	.004	2.51
Imageability (target)	−0.04	−0.07 – −0.01	.020	2.03
Imageability (response)	0.01	−0.00–0.02	.167	2.31
Perseverations	−0.06	−0.07 – −0.04	<.001	1.16
Category position	0.01	−0.00–0.01	.148	1.16
Observations: 1966
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.136/0.607

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.

Table E10. Summary of Supplementary Analyses Set 3 linear mixed model for semantic similarity on coordinate errors with separate values for target and response for control variables as fixed effects (analogous to Supplementary Analyses Set 1 on data points with complete information for semantic similarity measure, n = 1677 observations).

Random effect	Variance	SD
Item (Intercept)	0.02	0.13
Participant (Intercept)	0.00	0.01
Residual	0.01	0.08
Fixed effects	Estimates	CI	p	VIF
Intercept: Semantic similarity	−0.01	−0.03–0.02	.578
Typicality (target)	0.00	−0.02–0.03	.699	1.25
Typicality (response)	0.03	0.02–0.04	<.001	1.48
Number of features (target)	−0.00	−0.03–0.02	.758	1.26
Number of features (response)	−0.02	−0.03 – −0.01	<.001	1.48
Frequency (target)	−0.01	−0.04–0.02	.373	2.00
Frequency (response)	−0.00	−0.01–0.01	.839	2.38
Familiarity (target)	−0.01	−0.03–0.02	.663	1.77
Familiarity (response)	−0.02	−0.04 – −0.01	<.001	1.99
Length (target)	0.00	−0.02–0.03	.895	1.38
Length (response)	0.00	−0.01–0.01	.664	1.30
AoA (target)	−0.04	−0.07 – −0.01	.024	2.69
AoA (response)	0.02	0.01–0.03	.004	2.86
Imageability (target)	−0.02	−0.05–0.01	.137	2.11
Imageability (response)	0.01	−0.00–0.02	.233	2.68
Perseverations	−0.04	−0.05 – −0.03	<.001	1.19
Category position	0.01	−0.00–0.01	.095	1.20
Observations: 1677
Marginal R^2 / Conditional R^2: 0.120/0.741

Note: AoA = age of acquisition; CI = confidence interval; VIF = variance inflation factor; values for significant Intercepts and fixed effects (p < .05) are printed in bold.