The psychological consequences of childbirth

Figures & data

Table 1. Clinical and demographic characteristics of participants, according to clinical group (NS = non‐symptomatic; PS = partial PTSD symptomatology; FS = full range of PTSD symptomatology).

	Mean
	NS n = 78	PS n = 20	FS n = 4
Age^a	30.1 (5.5)	30.7 (5.3)	26.2 (8.7)
Social class^b†:
Professional	17 (21.7%)	7 (35%)	0 (0%)
Skilled non‐manual	21 (26.9%)	7 (35%)	1 (25%)
Skilled manual	14 (17.9%)	0 (0%)	1 (25%)
Semi‐skilled	14 (17.9%)	7 (35%)	1 (25%)
Manual	4 (5.1%)	2 (10%)	1 (25%)
Marital status†:
Single	5 (6.4%)	2 (10%)	2 (50%)
Married/cohabiting	72 (92.3%)	14 (70%)	2 (50%)
Parental status:
Primiparas	31 (39.7%)	10 (50%)	2 (50%)
Multiparas	47 (60.2%)	10 (50%)	2 (50%)
Type of delivery:
Normal vaginal delivery	47 (60.2%)	9 (45%)	2 (50%)
Assisted delivery (ventouse/forceps)	7 (8.9%)	4 (20%)	0 (0%)
Elective caesarean section	16 (20.5%)	1 (5%)	0 (0%)
Emergency caesarean section	8 (10.2%)	6 (30%)	2 (50%)
Previous mental health problem
Yes	14 (17.9%)	6 (30%)	0 (0%)
No	64 (82.1%)	14 (70%)	4 (100%)
† Any variation in numbers is due to missing data.^a = mean figures given; ^b = actual figures given; (% given in parenthesis).

Table 2. Mean scores and standard deviations for questionnaires used to determine the presence of psychopathology (n = 102).

	Mean	(SD/%)
Previous traumatic event^b:	60	(58.8%)
Yes	42	(41.2%)
No
Nature of traumatic event†:
Robbery/mugging	6	(5.9%)
Beaten up/attacked	31	(30.4%)
Forced into sex by threat of force	13	(12.7%)
Serious motor vehicle accident severe enough to cause injury to one or more passengers	12	(11.8%)
Loved one died by accident, murder or suicide	17	(16.7%)
Injury or property damage due to severe weather, natural or man made disaster	6	(5.9%)
Other terrifying/shocking experience (not specified)	29	(28.4%)
Perinatal Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Questionnaire (PPQ)^a:	13.3	(11.5)
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL)^a:	31.1	(13.9)
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Questionnaire^a:	8.4	(5.6)
† = According to the Previous Traumatic Events Questionnaire.^a = mean figures given; ^b = actual figures given; (% given in parenthesis).

Table 3. Rates of PTSD symptoms according to PPQ.

Outcomes	No. (%)
PTSD symptoms (total sample = 102)
No symptoms	78 (76.4%)
Partially symptomatic*	20 (19.6%)
Fully symptomatic	4 (3.9%)
Types of symptoms (PPTSD)†:
Re‐experiencing	8 (7.8%)
Avoidance	4 (3.9%)
Increased arousal	8 (7.8%)
Partial PTSD – one area	14 (13.7%)
Partial PTSD – two areas	6 (5.8%)
* In at least one domain of re‐experiencing; increased arousal or avoidance.† Any variation in n is due to symptom overlap.

Table 4. Mann–Whitney analysis showing significant differences (< 0.5) between groups on the Perceptions of labour and Delivery Questionnaire (symptomatic group (FS+PS), n = 24; non symptomatic group, n = 78).

Questionnaire item (Range 1–10)	Mean score	(SD) NS	Mann–Whitney U FS	p value PS
Overall rating of
Pleasure in labour	5.2 (2.7)	3.4 (2.5)	567.5	0.004
Overall distress	4.59 (2.9)	7.1 (2.6)	476	0.0001*
Preparedness	7.36 (2.6)	5.1 (3.2)	538	0.002*
Worst level of fear for self	4.68 (3.04)	6.6 (3.1)	594	0.008
Worst level of fear for baby	5.3 (3.2)	8.2 (2.1)	434	0.0001*
Average rating of fear for self	4 (2.6)	5.6 (2.9)	622	0.01
Average rating of fear for baby	4.8 (3.01)	7.7 (2.2)	423	0.0001*
Unexpectedness of procedures	4.1 (3.1)	7.5 (2.9)	411.5	0.0001*
Confidence during labour/delivery	6.7 (2.7)	5.5 (2.6)	673	0.05
Levels of control	5.9 (3.07)	3.5 (2.9)	516	0.001*
Overall rating of feeling informed	8.2 (1.9)	6.4 (3.1)	619.5	0.01
Wishes listened to by staff	8.3 (2.05)	6.9 (2.8)	608	0.01
Labour worse than expected	3.5 (2.9)	6 (3.7)	591	0.006
Labour better than expected	5.4 (3.1)	3.7 (3.1)	599	0.03
Overall rating of coping skills	8.9 (2.03)	7.4 (3.1)	707.5	0.05
* Significant at 0.002 level.

Table 5. Results of linear multiple regression analysis showing significant predictors of higher scores on the Perinatal PTSD Questionnaire (n = 102).

Variable	Standardised
	B	SE β	β	t	p
EPDS scores	0.87	0.17	0.42	5.0	0.0001*
Being single	5.3	3.1	0.13	1.67	0.09
*Worst level of fear for baby	1.23	0.51	0.34	2.4	0.01*
*Unexpectedness of procedures	1.15	0.33	0.34	3.4	0.001*
Note: model was significant (F = 10.02); p = 0.0001; adjusted R 2 = 0.48.* These items are from the Perceptions of Labour and Delivery Questionnaire, which correlated significantly at 0.2 (p<0.05).

Table 6. Results of forward stepwise multiple regression analysis showing significant predictors of higher scores on the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Questionnaire (n = 102).

Variable	Standardised
	B	SE β	β	t	p
PPQ scores	0.23	0.04	0.48	5.59	0.0001
Previous mental health problem	−2.6	1.17	−0.18	−2.23	0.02
Note: model was significant (F = 16.7); p = 0.0001; adjusted R 2 = 0.32.