Managing ochratoxin A risk in the grape-wine food chain

Figures & data

Table I. Occurrence of ochratoxin A in wine.

Reference	No. of analyzed samples	Origin	Incidence of contamination (%)	Range(µg kg^−1)
Zimmerli and Dick (1996)	118	Europe	70	<0.005–0.4
Majerus and Otteneder (1996)	144	Europe	42	<0.01–7.0
Ospital et al. (1996)	30	France	50	<0.01–0.3
MAFF (1997, 1998)	60	Europe	56	<0.01–0.8
Ueno (1998)	46	Japan	41	<0.01–0.2
Burdaspal and Legarda (1999)	192	Spain	82	<0.01–0.6
Visconti et al. (1999)	55	Italy	87	<0.01–7.6
Otteneder and Majerus (2000)	420	Europe	48	<0.01–3.3
Pietri et al. (2001)	111	Italy	82	<0.001–3.8
European Commission (2002)	1470	Europe	59	<0.01–15.6
Soufleros et al. (2003)	35	Greece	63	<0.02–3.2
Hocking et al. (2003)	601	Australia	15	<0.02–1.0
Tateo and Bonomi (2003)	80	Italy	85	<0.01–2.9
Finoli et al. (2004)	150	Italy	80	<0.01–5.2

Figure 1. Occurrence of black aspergilli and OTA in eight vineyards of Primitivo and Negroamaro varieties in Apulia over three grape-harvest seasons (2004–2006).

Figure 2. Influence of the training systems on the epiphitic black aspergilli in CFU g⁻¹ of grape berries samples and the OTA contamination in the Primitivo variety during 2004/2005. OTA levels with same letters are not significantly different according to the Duncan test (p < 0.01).

Figure 3. Logarithmic graph of the distribution of OTA concentration in grape berries versus black aspergilli contamination levels in groups of berries: In: intact berries; Ar: Aspergillus rotten berries; Lb: Aspergillus rotten berries with L. botrana larvae damages.

Table II. Percentage removal of ochratoxin A (OTA) from red wine containing 10 µg l^–1 OTA and treated with different amounts of adsorbent.

	Adsorbent dosage (g l^–1)
Adsorbent	0.1	0.2	0.4	0.5	1.0	8.0
Oenological decolourising carbon (Esseco)	80 (9)^a	92 (11)	–^b	–	–	–
Activated carbon (Sigma)	36	73	85	88	90	–
Mikofree (Perdomini)	–	–	–	63 (4)	83 (6)	–
Standard Q/FIS (Feed Industry Service)	9	28	31	–	68	–
Myco AD A–Z (Special Nutrients Inc.)	11	25	28	–	53	–
Cholestyramine (SIGMA)	6	10	16	–	35	–
Bentonite (Vason)	1	12	–	–	–	–
Polygel (AEB Group)	2	2	–	–	–	–
Oak wood chips (different types and sizes)^c	–	–	–	–	–	26–42
^aPercent reduction in polyphenol content (Folin Ciocalteu index) reported in parenthesis. ^bNot tested. ^cUsed on red wine containing 8.5 OTA µg l^−1.

Table III. Main critical control points plus suggested preventive and corrective measures to reduce ochratoxin A contamination in grapes and wine.

Risk factors	Preventive and corrective measures
Field and pre-harvest
• Mediterranean basin, closeness to the sea	• Monitoring climatic conditions from veraison to harvest
• High temperature and relative humidity from veraison to harvest	• Monitoring with trap system the Lobesia botrana pressure in the vineyards
• Rainfall during ripening period (berry splitting)	• Monitoring black aspergilli rot berries from veraison to ripening
• Berry damage (high risk with grape berry moth infestation)	• Avoid excess of vigour and vegetation favouring aeration of bunches
• Grape training system susceptibility (high risk with espalier)	• Avoid tillage from veraison to harvest
• High nitrogen fertilization, frequent tillage	• Combined fungicide/insecticide treatments (1 or 2) when favourable climatic conditions occur
• Grape variety susceptibility
Harvest–wine making
• Mechanical harvest without selection of bunches	• Anticipate harvest time in high OTA risk areas when favouring conditions occur
• High incidence of rot bunches	• Segregate rot bunches at harvesting
• Long grape storage after harversting (>8 h)	• Minimize storage time before processing
	• Control OTA contamination in must
	• Use carbon preparations to reduce OTA contamination during fermentation

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