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Abstract
Despite Portugal's neutrality in the Second World War (1939–1945), the subsequent new world order meant that the Portuguese Government felt obliged to revise its overseas policies. A new regional awareness could be seen in the Six-Year National Development Plans launched by Estado Novo from 1953 until the revolution of 1974. The territory and its strategic potential were emphasized in the context of national policies of overseas urbanization. Interventions in Cape Verde are visible particularly in the First Development Plan, which was based on equipping the province's public facilities. The methodology of intervention involved setting up missions aimed at planning a set of specific public works which were essential to the development of existing settlements. A sharp increase in the development of the territory through the work of specialized brigades took place in the Third Development Plan, when a set of public works on road, hydraulic and electricity networks was undertaken. The planning of infrastructures that was undertaken in these years was essential to the development of the archipelago and the resulting regional and urban land-use planning of the various islands.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Paulo Tormenta Pinto (Lisbon, 1970) is Assistant Professor at the Department of Architecture and Urbanism of ISCTE-IUL, and was Chair of this Department from 2007 to 2010. He is now the Director of the Research Centre in Architecture and Metropolitan Areas (CIAAM), and a research member of DINAMIA-CET-IUL. He is also Coordinator of the PhD programme Architecture of the Contemporary Metropolitan Territories. This article rises out of the research project The Colonial Urbanization Offices: Architectural Culture and Practice, supported by the Portuguese Government, through the FCT programme.
Rogério Vieira de Almeida (Lisbon, 1964) is an independent researcher. From 1997 to 2012, he was Assistant Professor in several Portuguese universities. He is now a research member of the Research Centre in Architecture and Metropolitan Areas (CIAAM), and of DINAMIA-CET-IUL.
Notes
1. This article is the result of a wider research programme, entitled “The Colonial Urbanization Offices: Architectural Culture and Practice,” supported by the Portuguese Government through the FCT (Science and Technological Foundation – PTDC/AUR-AQI/104964/2008), under the coordination of Ana Vaz Milheiro.
2. Milheiro, “Africanity and Colonial Architecture,” 326–30.
3. Minister of Finance (1926, 1928–1940), President of the Council of Ministers (Prime-Minister, 1932–1968).
4. Oliveira, “A evolução política,” 73.
5. Mattoso, Portuguese Heritage around the World.
6. Fernandes, Moçambique 1875/1975; Fernandes, Angola no Século XX, Portuguese Heritage around the World.
7. Kulturmann, New Directions in African Architecture and Sharp, Modern Movement in Architecture.
8. Miranda, Liberdade & ortodoxia.
9. Milheiro, Nos Trópicos sem Le Corbusier, 234–309.
10. Lagae, “Kultermann and After,” 6–9.
11. King, “Writing Transnational Planning Histories.”
12. Lagae, “Kultermann and after,” 7; also Elleh, Architecture and Power in Africa and Araeen's, “New Beginning.”
13. The Colonial Act was the result of João Belo's (1878–1928) mandate as Minister of the Colonies (1926–1928), after having resided in Mozambique for a period of 30 years. See Silva, “Sob o signo do Império,” 357–87.
14. Pakenham, Scramble for Africa; Hobsbawm, Age of Empire 1875–1914.
15. Gungunhana was king of the Gaza in the territory of Mozambique, and was captured by the Portuguese in 1895. His presence became especially troublesome when the territories of his kingdom were coveted by Portugal in the context of the Berlin Conference and the Portuguese claim to all the territories from coast to coast, between Angola and Mozambique.
16. Decree n°. 18570, July 8, 1930 (mainly its preamble).
17. Oliveira, “A evolução política,” 42–77; Rosas, “As grandes linhas da evolução institucional,” 86–143.
18. Nunes and de Brito, “Política económica, industrialização e crescimento,” 306–333.
19. Three Six-Year Development Plans were implemented in 1953–1958, 1959–1964 and 1968–1973. There was also an Intermediate Development Plan in 1965–1967 and a fourth one in 1974 was terminated by the 1974 Revolution.
20. Decree-Law n°. 38300, June 15, 1951, where the Ministry of Colonies was renamed as Overseas Ministry (Ministério do Ultramar). These changes took place during the mandate of Manuel Maria Sarmento Rodrigues (1899–1979) as Minister of the Colonies (1951–1955). He had been Governor of Guinea (1945–1948) and was later Governor of Mozambique (1961–1964).
21. Decree-Law n°. 24802 (December 21, 1934) established that, from that date, town halls should elaborate urban plans and territorial surveys of their territories. Until 1944, the obligation was barely fulfilled and had few consequences. Lobo, Os Planos de Urbanização.
22. Decree-Law n°. 34173, December 6, 1944. Later changes to its designation eventually came to reflect the political repositioning of Estado Novo, first for the Overseas Urbanization Office and later to the Department Board for Urbanization and Housing.
23. During Salazar's first mandate as Minister of Finance, every single expense of the State had to be authorized by himself, a prerogative that he kept until 1940. The centralization of power in the hands of Salazar was even more visible in the accumulation of other functions, such as those of Minister of Foreign Affairs (1939–1944) and Minister of National Defence (1961–1962). See Rosas, “As grandes linhas da evolução institucional,” 86–143.
24. This administrative structure was later changed when, in 1957, the Gabinete was turned into the Department Board for Urbanization and Housing.
25. Marcello Caetano succeeded Salazar as Prime Minister between 1968 and the 1974 Revolution.
26. Decree-Law n°. 34173, December 6, 1944.
27. Ibid.
28. It was the case, during the 1940s and the 1950s, of some architects working for the Gabinete who pursued their studies and research in London, at the Architectural Association, and in Madrid, at the National Department for Devastated Regions and Reconstruction and the Institute for Local Studies.
29. See Caetano, “O Planeamento Regional em Portugal,” 903–24.
30. Activity Report for the Overseas Urbanization Office Between 1944 and 1952.
31. These working teams were mainly composed by engineers, skilled workers and managing workers.
32. Brooks, Western Africa and Cabo Verde.
33. Carreira, Formação e Extinção de uma Sociedade Escravocrata.
34. As a letter from king D. João II, dated from 1487, clearly proves, História Geral de Cabo Verde (1988), 56–60.
35. Later in the 1960s, freedom fighters became its main prisoners.
36. Mota, Henrique Galvão, 119.
37. Murteira, “Formação e Colapso de uma Economia Colonial,” 126.
38. Ibid.
39. Ibid.
40. Ibid.
41. The mission was composed of 25 men divided into 2 teams, each with a chief engineer, engineers, work commissioners, topographers, draftsmen and administrative officials.
42. Ribeiro, “Originalidade da expansão portuguesa.”
43. Ribeiro, “As erupções do Fogo e a vida da ilha,” 13–15; Ribeiro, “As ilhas atlânticas,” 108–16.
44. Amaral, Santiago; Amaral was himself born in Angola.
45. Ibid, 359.
46. Ibid, 369.
47. Ibid.
48. As was made especially clear in the Second Development Plan.
49. Rosas, O Estado Novo, 455.
50. Law n°. 2058, Decembre 29, 1952.
51. Rosas, O Estado Novo, 455.
52. For instance, planned investment per capita in Cape Verde was 0.32 escudos, compared to 0.9 in the metropolis, and 28 escudos per square kilometre, compared to 78 in the metropolis. Despite Salazar's declared intention of 1942 – to ‘fight against the hunger in that colony [Cape Verde]’ – the natural resources of Angola, Mozambique and São Tomé and Príncipe had priority over all other concerns. The latter colony had a population of 120,000 people (one-third of Cape Verde's) but received 200,000 escudos (1000 euros), nearly twice the amount allocated to Cape Verde.
53. Descriptive and Explanatory Memoir on Water Supply and Sanitation in Cape Verdean Settlements, [ … ] in 1961.
54. Descriptive and Explanatory Memoir on the Electrification of Some Islands of Cape Verde, [ … ] in 1961.
55. Ibid.
56. Descriptive and Explanatory Memoir on the Construction of Roads in Some Islands in Cape Verde, [ … ] in 1961.
57. The roads linking Mindelo – Baía das Gatas, Mindelo – Viana, Lameirão, Assomada de Baleia and the extension to Calhau.
58. The road connection between Ladeira Vermelha and Carriçal was left for later.
59. Figueira Muta and Ribeira da Prata were main priorities to complete on the road ‘Volta do Monte-Tarrafal’, interrupted between these two locations. The completion of the earthworks for the Praia-Assomada-Tarrafal road was also expected and considered essential, as well as between Praia and Achada de S. Filipe, and the connection between the sections already constructed on the Milho Branco-Tarrafal road.
60. Arquivo Histórico da Cidade da Praia.
61. ‘Achada’ is the name given to the existed settlements in the several plateaus that characterize Santiago Island.
62. Cartography on Praia's Urbanization's ‘Célula 1' (‘First Cell') Achada Principal, Arquivo Histórico da Cidade da Praia.
63. Ibid.
64. Ibid.
65. 1967 Financial Report.
66. Ibid.
67. Maria Emília Caria's Report of the Mission to the Province of Cape Verde in June 1973.
68. Ibid.
69. Ibid.
70. The new plan covered areas like Froucha Chapéu (the largest) and Monte Vermelho in Achada do Palmarejo which had favourable conditions for tourism and urban development, but where there were still some patches of illegal occupation. Achada do Palmarejo was a quiet area and less exposed to the dust from dominant north/northeast winds.
71. As for the new planned centre between the Achada Principal and Achadinha, the conclusion of part of the road network from the Master Plan was also being reconsidered, as it depended entirely on the expropriation of land. The industrial zone would be closely related to the General Plan for the port of Praia, where there were plans to build a new pier, as well as a meat refrigeration facility, which was believed would leverage the industrial development of that area.
72. Ibid.
73. Eventual Service Commission for the Province of Cape Verde Report.
74. Ibid.
75. Ibid.
76. Ibid.
77. Andrade, As ilhas de Cabo Verde.
78. Francisco, “UE aprova estatuto especial para Cabo Verde.”