Raising children in the inner city: still a mismatch between housing and households?

Figures & data

Figure 1. The inner city of Oslo and its surrounding suburbs.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics: independent variables measured over ten years.

	First child 1995		First child 2005
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Age 1995/2005	29.738	5.01	31.690	4.49
Woman	0.524	0.50	0.517	0.50
Non-native background	0.207	0.41	0.183	0.39
Married/partner	0.520	0.50	0.535	0.50
Arrival of a second child	0.080	0.27	0.090	0.28
Arrival of additional children	0.034	0.18	0.030	0.17
University education	0.536	0.49	0.728	0.44
Log income	12.097	0.87	12.669	0.80
Mean log income (census tract)	11.684	0.24	12.296	0.26
Mean number of rooms per dwelling (census tract)	2.940	0.5	2.866	0.42
Population density (census tract)	12.851	8.44	14.021	8.83
Robustness checks
Share of dwellings $\ge$80 m^2 (census tract)	0.459	0.237	0.416	0.217
Non-natives from Asia and Africa	0.131	0.338	0.132	0.338

Figure 2. Continued residence in the inner city over 10 years: the Kaplan-Meier survival function, with 95% confidence intervals. Upper graph: Individuals who received their first child in 1995 and 2005, compared with two control groups. Lower graph: Individuals who received their first child in 1995 and 2005, divided by native/non-native background.

Table 2. Survival in the inner city as a function of individual and neighbourhood characteristics, based on a 10-years observation window.

	1995 cohort	2005 cohort	Difference
Individual characteristics
Age	0.014	–0.001	–0.015
Age squared	0.000	0.000	0.000
Gender (woman)	–0.023*	–0.026**	–0.003
Non-native background	0.140***	0.069***	–0.071***
Married/partner	–0.166***	–0.234***	–0.068***
Arrival of a second child	–0.073**	–0.030*	0.043*
Arrival of additional children	0.023	–0.011	–0.034*
University education	–0.003	0.029**	0.032*
Log income	–0.124***	–0.143***	–0.018
Neighbourhood characteristics
Log mean income	–0.056	0.017	0.073
Number of rooms per dwelling	0.059***	0.035**	–0.024
Population density	–0.230**	–0.062	0.168
Number of observations	31,862	46,079

Average marginal effects. Notes: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001, based on robust standard errors.

Figure 3. Adjusted prediction of survival by cohort, native/non-native background, and average number of rooms per dwelling (census tracts) with 95% confidence intervals. Left graph: the 1995 cohort. Right graph: the 2005 cohort. Based on a logit model with all control variables (Table 2).

Figure 4. Adjusted prediction of relocation choices, with 95% confidence intervals. Upper graph: movement to a house by native/non-native background and cohort, based on a binary logit model. Lower graph: five choices by native/non-native background and cohort, based on a multinomial logit model. Control variables: age, gender, civil status, arrival of a second child, arrival of additional children, education, and log income.

Robustness checks.

	Reference: Table 2			Cox regression			Non-natives from Asia and Africa			Share of large dwellings
	1995 cohort	2005 cohort	Difference	1995 cohort	2005 cohort	Difference	1995 cohort	2005 cohort	Difference	1995 cohort	2005 cohort	Difference
Individual characteristics
Age	0.014	–0.001	–0.015	1.019	0.985	–0.033*	0.013	–0.001	–0.014	0.014	–0.001	–0.015
Age squared	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.999	1.001***	0.001**	–0.000	0.000	0.000	–0.000	0.000	0.000
Gender (woman)	–0.023*	–0.026**	–0.003	0.988	0.983	–0.005	–0.022	–0.027**	–0.005	–0.023*	–0.025**	–0.002
Native/non-native background	0.140***	0.069***	–0.071***	1.377***	1.207***	–0.170***	0.173***	0.110***	–0.062*	0.136***	0.068***	–0.071***
Married/partner	–0.166***	–0.234***	–0.068***	0.741***	0.622***	–0.119***	–0.167***	–0.235***	–0.068***	–0.166***	–0.234***	–0.068***
Arrival of a second child	–0.073**	–0.030*	0.043*	0.813***	0.917***	0.104***	–0.076***	–0.034*	0.045*	–0.074***	–0.031*	0.043*
Arrival of additional children	0.023	–0.011	–0.034*	1.056*	0.951**	–0.105***	0.019	–0.015	–0.034*	0.023	–0.012	–0.035*
University education	–0.003	0.029**	0.032*	1.015	1.124***	0.109***	0.000	0.031**	0.031*	–0.002	0.029**	0.033*
Log income	–0.124***	–0.143***	–0.018	0.824***	0.815***	–0.009	–0.125***	–0.143***	–0.018	–0.124***	–0.143***	–0.019
Neighbourhood characteristics
Log mean income	–0.056	0.017	0.073	0.809***	0.990	0.181**	–0.049	0.027	0.076	–0.020	0.019	0.039
Neighbourhood housing structure	0.059***	0.035**	–0.024	1.161***	1.099***	–0.062	0.061***	0.035**	–0.026	0.001*	0.001**	0.000
Population density	–0.230**	–0.062	0.168	0.396*	0.862*	0.469**	–0.242**	–0.061	0.181	–0.217**	–0.064	0.153
Number of observations	31,862	46,079		31,862	46,079		31,862	46,079		31,862	46,079

Notes: *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001, based on robust standard errors.