Housing quality determinants of depression and suicide ideation by age and gender

Figures & data

Figure 1. Research conceptual framework.

Table 1. Description of panel data.

Wave	Year	Household sample size	Percentage of the original household sample maintained*
1	2005	14,613	100%
2	2006	13,671	92.07%
3	2007	13,082	86.65%
4	2008	12,821	83.92%
5	2009	12,401	80.25%
6	2010	11,749	75.45%
7	2011	15,130	74.53%
8	2012	14,705	72.17%
9	2013	14,108	69.23%
10	2014	13,801	67.31%
11	2015	13,319	64.48%
12	2016	12,938	62.19%

* Source of data (Kim et al., 2016, p. 8).

Table 2. Variables, survey items and coding scheme.

Variable	Survey items	Coding scheme
Mental health
Depression	(CES-D 11) How often have you felt this way during the past week? 1) I did not feel like eating. 2) I was happy. 3) I felt very depressed. 4) I felt everything I did was an effort. 5) My sleep was restless. 6) I felt lonely. 7) I enjoyed life. 8) People were unfriendly. 9) I felt sad. 10) I felt that people dislike me. 11) I could not get going.	Rarely or none of the time = 0, Sometimes (1-2 days per week) = 1, Often (3-4 days per week) = 2, Most of the time (5-7 days per week) = 3. Scores range from 0 to 33.
Suicide ideation	In the past year, have you ever seriously considered a suicide?	Yes = 1, No = 0
Housing
Housing quality
a. Functional problem	The house is equipped with proper noise proof, ventilation, lighting, and heating system.	Yes = 0, No = 1
b. Structural problem	As a permanent building, the quality of the materials of the main structure is proof from heat, fire, and moisture.	Yes = 0, No = 1
c. Disaster vulnerability	The house is safe from natural disasters such as flooding, storm, and landslide.	Yes = 0, No = 1
d. Bathroom	Independent bathroom (with hot water) = 0; shared bathroom with other households/ no hot water for bathroom/ or no bathroom at all = 1
e. Living in basement	Living in a basement or half-basement = 1; ground and above level = 0
f. Overcrowding	Living under the minimum housing size per person (floor area 12 m² and below) = 1, above 12 m² =0
Residential environment
Residential satisfaction	Very satisfied = 5, somewhat satisfied = 4, neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3, somewhat dissatisfied = 2, very dissatisfied = 1
Housing tenure
Owned home vs rental	Owned = 1, Rented = 0
Housing-related financial burden
Housing debt	The amount of housing-related debt (unit: KRW10,000,000)
Overdue housing debt	None = 0, once = 1, two or three times = 2, four times and more = 3
Location
City vs rural	City = 1, rural = 0
Income
Household income per person	Annual disposable household income/ the number of household members (unit: KRW10,000,000)
Satisfaction with household income	Very satisfied = 5; somewhat satisfied = 4; neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; somewhat dissatisfied = 2; very dissatisfied = 1
Job
Jobless	Unemployed (actively have been seeking for employment in the past four weeks) = 1, wage worker, self-employed or employer, unpaid family employee, unemployed (with no work capability due to disability, injury, disease and ageing), unemployed due to study or housework and unemployed with no motivation to work = 0
Satisfaction with job	Very satisfied = 5; somewhat satisfied = 4; neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; somewhat dissatisfied = 2; very dissatisfied = 1
Relationship
Single household	Single household = 1, other types of households = 0
Family conflict	Conflicts of opinion are frequent. Family members sometimes throw stuff in anger. Family members always discuss any issues in a calm manner. Family members often criticise each other. Family members sometimes hit physically.	Strongly agree = 5, Somewhat agree = 4, Neither agree nor disagree = 3, Somewhat disagree = 2, Strongly disagree = 1 Reverse coding was applied to item 3). Aggregated score was divided by 5, and final scores range from 1 to 5.
Satisfaction with social relationship (other than family relationship)	Very satisfied = 5; somewhat satisfied = 4; neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3; somewhat dissatisfied = 2; very dissatisfied = 1
Wellbeing & lifestyle
Health	Very healthy = 5; healthy = 4; average = 3; not healthy = 2; very bad =1
Self-esteem (se)	Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965): As of today, how do you feel about yourself? I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. I am able to do things as well as most other people. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. I take a positive attitude towards myself. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. I wish I could have more respect for myself. I certainly feel useless at times. At times I think I am no good at all.	Strongly agree = 4, Somewhat agree = 3, Neither agree nor disagree = 2, Disagree = 1 Reverse coding was applied to items 3), 5), 8), & 9). Scores range from 10 to 40.
Alcoholism	How often did you drink alcohol in the past one year?	None = 0, Once a month or below = 1, 2-4 times a month = 2, 2-3 times a week = 3, 4+ times a week = 4

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of the sample.

		Full sample	Age 19–39 (Young adults)		Age 40–59 (Middle-aged)		Age 60 and over (Older adults)
			Men	Women	Men	Women	Men	Women
N		162,338	21,445	23,999	25,412	26,027	26,093	39,362
Depression	Obs	150,629	18,295	21,943	23,625	25,340	24,070	37,356
	Mean (SD)	4.378 (5.182)	2.645 (3.835)	3.297 (4.452)	3.303 (4.541)	4.082 (4.979)	4.625 (5.209)	6.585 (5.209)
Suicide ideation	No	70,565 (96.6%)	7,029 (98.6%)	8,797 (98.0%)	11,373 (97.3%)	12,003 (96.3%)	12,179 (96.2%)	19,184 (95.2%)
	Yes	2,500 (3.4%)	99 (1.4%)	178 (2.0%)	317 (2.7%)	455 (3.7%)	477 (3.8%)	974 (4.8%)
Functional problem	No	145,476 (89.6%)	18,937 (88.3%)	21,173 (88.2%)	22,593 (88.9%)	23,204 (89.2%)	23,795 (91.2%)	35,774 (90.9%)
	Yes	16,851 (10.4%)	2,507 (11.7%)	2,823 (11.8%)	2,817 (11.1%)	2,819 (10.8%)	2,297 (8.8%)	3,588 (9.1%)
Structural problem	No	133,794 (82.4%)	18,132 (84.6%)	20,301 (84.6%)	21,208 (83.5%)	21,809 (83.8%)	21,261 (81.5%)	31,083 (79.0%)
	Yes	28,538 (17.6%)	3,312 (15.4%)	3,696 (15.4%)	4,202 (16.5%)	4,217 (16.2%)	4,832 (18.5%)	8,279 (21.0%)
Disaster vulnerability	No	156,768 (96.6%)	20,857 (97.2%)	23,372 (97.4%)	24,638 (97.0%)	25,224 (97.0%)	25,051 (96.0%)	37,626 (95.6%)
	Yes	5,554 (3.4%)	586 (2.7%)	623 (2.6%)	772 (3.0%)	801 (3.0%)	1,038 (4.0%)	1,734 (4.4%)
Bathroom	No	153,997 (94.9%)	20,883 (97.5%)	23,581 (98.3%)	24,506 (96.5%)	25,303 (97.3%)	24,113 (92.4%)	35,611 (90.5%)
	Yes	8262 (5.1%)	547 (2.5%)	402 (1.7%)	893 (3.5%)	713 (2.7%)	1971 (7.6%)	3736 (9.5%)
Living in basement	No	156,895 (96.9%)	20,700 (96.9%)	23,088 (96.6%)	24,483 (96.6%)	25,098 (96.7%)	25,439 (97.7%)	38,087 (97.0%)
	Yes	4,967 (3.1%)	668 (3.1%)	809 (3.4%)	850 (3.4%)	861 (3.3%)	595 (2.3%)	1,184 (3.0%)
Overcrowding	No	152,948 (94.2%)	20,015 (93.3%)	21,916 (91.3%)	23,345 (91.9%)	24,134 (92.7%)	25,335 (97.1%)	38,203 (97.1%)
	Yes	9,390 (5.8%)	1,430 (6.7%)	2,083 (8.7%)	2,067 (8.1%)	1,893 (7.3%)	758 (2.9%)	1,159 (2.9%)
Residential satisfaction	Obs	151,001	18,354	21,991	23,669	25,400	24,120	37,467
	Mean (SD)	3.490 (0.843)	3.472 (0.833)	3.442 (0.878)	3.434 (0.864)	3.440 (0.886)	3.585 (0.788)	3.535 (0.810)
Owned home (vs rental)	No	63,495 (39%)	10,025 (46.8%)	11,902 (49.6%)	10,024 (39.4%)	10,272 (39.5%)	6,934 (26.6%)	14,338 (36.4%)
	Yes	98,832 (61%)	11,418 (53.3%)	12,095 (50.4%)	15,388 (60.6%)	15,755 (60.5%)	19,157 (73.4%)	25,019 (63.6%)
Housing-related debt	Obs	124,220	16,225	18,295	20,177	20,717	20,360	28,446
	Mean (SD)	1.444 (15.671)	1.838 (14.112)	2.301 (21.307)	1.931 (14.748)	1.726 (14.457)	0.719 (15.803)	0.635 (13.410)
Overdue housing debt	Obs	128,523	16,957	19,166	20,971	21,537	20,829	29,063
	Mean (SD)	0.020 (0.218)	0.023 (0.233)	0.026 (0.244)	0.028 (0.254)	0.027 (0.255)	0.011 (0.165)	0.010 (0.159)
City (vs rural)	Rural	35,519 (21.9%)	2,945 (13.7%)	2,941 (12.3%)	4,286 (16.9%)	4,384 (16.8%)	8,005 (30.7%)	12,958 (32.9%)
	City	126,819 (78.1%)	18,500 (86.3%)	21,058 (87.8%)	21,126 (83.1%)	21,643 (83.2%)	18,088 (69.3%)	26,404 (67.1%)
Household income per person	Obs	162,332	21,444	23,998	25,411	26,026	26,092	39,361
	Mean (SD)	2.072 (2.241)	2.577 (2.422)	2.544 (2.305)	2.489 (2.409)	2.439 (2.378)	1.577 (1.982)	1.326 (1.728)
Satisfaction with household income	Obs	150,996	18,351	21,992	23,669	25,401	24,121	37,462
	Mean (SD)	2.733 (0.936)	2.931 (0.916)	2.959 (0.923)	2.697 (0.965)	2.679 (0.959)	2.657 (0.914)	2.613 (0.894)
Jobless	No	91,542 (58.24%)	14,635 (72.5%)	11,747 (51.3%)	21,967 (87.6%)	16,612 (64.3%)	13,203 (53.1%)	13,378 (34.9%)
	Yes	65,650 (41.76%)	5,554 (27.5%)	11,160 (48.7%)	3,113 (12.4%)	9,220 (35.7%)	11,674 (46.9%)	24,929 (65.1%)
Satisfaction with job	Obs	150,955	18,346	21,980	23,667	25,391	24,113	37,458
	Mean (SD)	3.253 (0.894)	3.367 (0.924)	3.438 (0.865)	3.238 (0.982)	3.271 (0.906)	3.161 (0.880)	3.145 (0.810)
Single household	No	141,463 (87.14%)	20,171 (94.1%)	23,021 (95.9%)	24,092 (94.8%)	24,646 (94.7%)	23,477 (90.0%)	26,056 (66.2%)
	Yes	20,875 (12.9%)	1,274 (5.9%)	978 (4.1%)	1,320 (5.2%)	1,381 (5.3%)	2,616 (10%)	13,306 (33.8%)
Family conflict	Obs	157,621	21,105	23,748	24,888	25,618	25,424	36,838
	Mean (SD)	1.866 (0.915)	1.879 (0.928)	1.884 (0.927)	1.941 (0.943)	1.920 (0.943)	1.839 (0.904)	1.775 (0.861)
Satisfaction with social relationship	Obs	150,981	18,351	21,990	23,663	25,398	24,114	37,465
	Mean (SD)	3.712 (0.699)	3.809 (0.657)	3.806 (0.645)	3.720 (0.720)	3.740 (0.680)	3.641 (0.739)	3.629 (0.710)
Health	Obs	162,291	21,440	23,990	25,404	26,019	26,084	39,354
	Mean (SD)	3.420 (1.051)	4.137 (0.723)	4.091 (0.706)	3.735 (0.907)	3.577 (0.919)	2.898 (0.996)	2.657 (0.908)
Self-esteem	Obs	150,680	18,301	21,945	23,626	25,348	24,078	37,382
	Mean (SD)	30.151 (4.238)	31.862 (3.741)	31.519 (3.824)	30.672 (4.155)	30.687 (3.980)	29.240 (4.215)	28.403 (4.166)
Alcoholism	Obs	157,148	20,179	22,898	25,077	25,828	24,876	38,290
	Mean (SD)	1.518 (1.494)	1.860 (1.159)	1.432 (1.339)	2.098 (1.323)	1.315 (1.465)	1.782 (1.620)	0.975 (1.560)

Note: SD = standard deviation.

Table 4. Panel fixed effects model: the effect of housing on depression by age & gender.

	Young men		Young women		Middle-aged men		Middle-aged women		Older men		Older women
	Coef.	S.E.	Coef.	S.E.	Coef.	S.E.	Coef.	S.E.	Coef.	S.E.	Coef.	S.E.
Functional problem	0.148	0.116	0.500***	0.114	0.397***	0.100	0.150	0.105	0.406**	0.127	0.489***	0.119
Structural problem	0.345**	0.105	0.178	0.103	0.186*	0.088	0.212*	0.091	0.353***	0.094	0.161	0.087
Disaster vulnerability	−0.086	0.225	0.078	0.223	−0.162	0.182	0.062	0.189	−0.081	0.189	0.355*	0.168
Bathroom	0.240	0.318	−0.131	0.381	−0.126	0.251	0.230	0.282	0.238	0.182	0.278	0.157
Living in basement	−0.499	0.255	0.252	0.241	−0.134	0.243	0.237	0.240	0.746*	0.330	0.789**	0.272
Overcrowding	−0.305	0.181	−0.184	0.152	0.173	0.141	0.153	0.147	0.146	0.262	−0.022	0.234
Residential satisfaction	−0.216***	0.044	−0.111**	0.042	−0.235***	0.038	−0.199***	0.039	−0.010	0.048	−0.131**	0.044
Owned home (vs rental)	−0.014	0.111	0.006	0.103	0.119	0.112	0.071	0.123	−0.061	0.214	−0.085	0.195
Housing − related debt	0.007	0.003	−0.001	0.002	2.34e-04	0.002	−0.003	0.003	−0.022	0.018	0.043*	0.019
Overdue housing debt	0.284	0.172	0.044	0.163	0.495***	0.129	0.686***	0.128	0.182	0.253	0.623**	0.228
City (vs rural)	−0.292	0.231	−0.244	0.220	−0.460	0.288	0.061	0.303	0.917**	0.276	0.815**	0.275
Household income per person	−0.016	0.012	−0.003	0.013	−0.014	0.011	−0.022	0.012	0.004	0.017	−0.013	0.020
Satisfaction with household income	0.043	0.041	−0.171***	0.041	−0.228***	0.036	−0.360***	0.037	−0.365***	0.042	−0.487***	0.040
Jobless	0.307**	0.096	0.102	0.076	0.419***	0.118	−0.026	0.087	−0.157	0.096	−0.144	0.093
Satisfaction with job	−0.282***	0.041	−0.384***	0.041	−0.355***	0.036	−0.390***	0.037	−0.492***	0.042	−0.572***	0.042
Single household	0.456*	0.204	0.216	0.234	0.172	0.296	−0.216	0.243	0.385	0.236	−0.089	0.144
Family conflict	0.280***	0.037	0.455***	0.037	0.256***	0.032	0.362***	0.033	0.214***	0.038	0.378***	0.038
Satisfaction with social relationship	−0.366***	0.054	−0.398***	0.054	−0.190***	0.045	−0.133**	0.048	−0.240***	0.050	−0.206***	0.049
Health	−0.061	0.048	−0.013	0.048	−0.241***	0.038	−0.309***	0.038	−0.487***	0.040	−0.647***	0.039
Self-esteem	−0.324***	0.010	−0.398***	0.010	−0.304***	0.009	−0.296***	0.009	−0.325***	0.009	−0.373***	0.009
Alcoholism	0.066*	0.032	0.157***	0.027	0.051	0.027	0.123***	0.024	−0.046	0.025	0.118***	0.025
Constant	15.525***	0.455	18.500***	0.458	16.157***	0.419	16.494***	0.445	17.742***	0.439	21.579***	0.420
R-within	0.154		0.182		0.149		0.130		0.140		0.155
R-between	0.302		0.374		0.462		0.496		0.482		0.463
R-overall	0.238		0.282		0.319		0.327		0.319		0.312
N of obs.	13,614		16,573		18,426		19,979		18,502		26,171
N of groups	3,390		3,562		3,546		3,702		3,154		4,441

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Table 5. Panel fixed effects logistic model: the effect of housing on suicide ideation by age & gender.

	Young men		Young women		Middle-aged men		Middle-aged women		Older men		Older women
	OR	SE	OR	SE	OR	SE	OR	SE	OR	SE	OR	SE
Functional problem	0.042*	0.056	0.578	0.280	2.212*	0.765	0.930	0.283	1.232	0.418	1.098	0.235
Structural problem	2.224	1.551	0.933	0.359	0.978	0.308	1.324	0.323	0.697	0.154	1.147	0.177
Disaster vulnerability	25.930	49.056	1.650	1.590	0.399	0.254	0.429	0.213	1.217	0.567	1.100	0.328
Bathroom	5.90e-07	0.001	1.297	1.712	0.462	0.350	5.649	5.464	2.009	0.856	0.660	0.204
Living in basement	65.802	155.762	2.174	2.280	0.612	0.445	1.130	0.656	0.421	0.320	2.357	1.172
Overcrowding	0.748	0.687	0.402	0.312	1.521	0.666	0.979	0.410	1.288	0.767	1.106	0.515
Residential satisfaction	0.450*	0.159	0.793	0.156	0.732*	0.096	0.963	0.101	0.950	0.115	0.966	0.076
Owned home (vs rental)	0.080*	0.090	1.639	1.228	0.933	0.428	1.017	0.424	2.682	2.166	2.001	0.827
Housing-related debt	1.352*	0.165	0.965	0.057	0.998	0.040	0.997	0.044	0.976	0.059	1.005	0.038
Overdue housing debt	201.267	6.23e + 05	3.50e-05	0.035	0.567	0.354	0.771	0.258	6.46e-05	0.025	1.810	0.866
City (vs rural)	2.78e + 07	8.35e + 10	0.758	0.708	0.419	0.483	0.964	1.195	0.396	0.345	0.450	0.288
Household income per person	1.233	0.529	1.067	0.188	0.991	0.105	0.789*	0.094	1.002	0.137	0.875	0.086
Satisfaction with household income	0.988	0.346	0.763	0.164	1.058	0.155	0.705**	0.085	0.877	0.103	0.915	0.071
Jobless	2.234	1.684	2.000	0.776	1.764	0.636	0.716	0.181	1.183	0.283	1.385	0.264
Satisfaction with job	1.036	0.332	0.897	0.160	1.072	0.143	1.072	0.119	0.994	0.112	0.957	0.079
Single household	9.84e-09	1.30e-05	1.048	0.814	2.557	1.906	0.269*	0.170	1.053	0.532	1.851*	0.522
Family conflict	1.374	0.358	1.347	0.212	1.145	0.136	1.530***	0.140	1.684***	0.166	1.290***	0.084
Satisfaction with social relationship	1.187	0.400	1.297	0.291	1.452*	0.230	1.256	0.160	1.207	0.146	1.269**	0.114
Health	1.051	0.330	0.720	0.155	0.849	0.115	1.092	0.130	0.886	0.097	0.928	0.075
Self-esteem	0.756**	0.063	0.894*	0.039	0.902**	0.028	0.945*	0.025	0.889***	0.022	0.957*	0.016
Alcoholism	0.891	0.239	1.073	0.167	1.335*	0.161	1.203	0.132	1.268**	0.111	1.078	0.110
Depression	1.107*	0.044	1.150***	0.033	1.184***	0.028	1.174***	0.022	1.137***	0.018	1.152***	0.013
Log-likelihood	−48.8		−121.9		−223.7		−329.9		−337.8		−731.9
LR Chi-Square	86.1		130.3		161.0		210.7		225.6		380.3
N of obs.	270		532		872		1,236		1,280		2,639
N of groups	65		123		190		260		265		526

Note: * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Table 6. PLS-SEM: the effect of housing quality on depression through the mediation of residential satisfaction.

	Young men		Young women		Middle-aged men		Middle-aged women		Older men		Older women
	b	SD	b	SD	b	SD	b	SD	b	SD	b	SD
Total effect
Basement -> D	−0.017	0.011	0.015	0.013	0.002	0.009	0.008	0.010	0.017	0.010	0.006	0.008
Bath -> D	0.027	0.014	−0.011	0.011	−0.009	0.010	0.024*	0.010	0.012	0.010	0.004	0.007
Disaster -> D	0.006	0.011	−0.018	0.012	0.012	0.009	0.010	0.008	−0.004	0.009	0.003	0.007
Func -> D	0.017	0.013	0.041**	0.013	0.023*	0.010	0.010	0.009	0.026**	0.009	0.017*	0.007
Nperm -> D	0.015	0.014	0.012	0.011	0.006	0.010	0.026*	0.010	0.004	0.009	0.020*	0.008
Overcrowding -> D	−0.013	0.011	0.012	0.009	0.006	0.008	−0.005	0.009	0.026*	0.011	−0.008	0.007
Indirect Effect
Basement -> R -> D	0.006**	0.002	0.001	0.001	0.003**	0.001	0.003*	0.001	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.001
Bath -> R -> D	0.002*	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.003**	0.001	0.001*	0.001	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.001
Disaster -> R -> D	0.001	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Func -> R -> D	0.001	0.001	0.001	0.001	0.002**	0.001	0.002*	0.001	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.001
Nperm -> R -> D	0.008**	0.003	0.003	0.002	0.007**	0.002	0.006**	0.002	0.001	0.002	−0.001	0.002
Overcrowding -> R -> D	0.006**	0.002	0.002	0.002	0.006**	0.002	0.005**	0.002	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.001
Direct effect
Basement -> D	−0.024*	0.011	0.013	0.012	−0.001	0.009	0.005	0.010	0.017	0.010	0.007	0.008
Bath -> D	0.025	0.014	−0.011	0.011	−0.011	0.010	0.023*	0.010	0.011	0.010	0.005	0.007
Disaster -> D	0.004	0.011	−0.019	0.012	0.012	0.009	0.010	0.008	−0.004	0.008	0.003	0.007
Func -> D	0.017	0.013	0.040**	0.013	0.021*	0.010	0.008	0.009	0.026**	0.009	0.017*	0.007
Nperm -> D	0.007	0.014	0.010	0.011	−0.001	0.010	0.019	0.010	0.003	0.009	0.021*	0.008
Size -> D	−0.020	0.011	0.010	0.009	0.000	0.008	−0.010	0.009	0.025*	0.011	−0.008	0.007
R -> D	−0.044**	0.014	−0.014	0.011	−0.036**	0.010	−0.029**	0.011	−0.004	0.010	0.003	0.009
Basement -> R	−0.142***	0.014	−0.105***	0.011	−0.095***	0.010	−0.107***	0.012	−0.105***	0.011	−0.118***	0.009
Bath -> R	−0.052**	0.017	−0.033**	0.012	−0.073***	0.012	−0.050***	0.012	−0.121***	0.011	−0.132***	0.011
Disaster -> R	−0.029*	0.013	−0.035**	0.012	−0.014	0.011	−0.007	0.011	−0.030*	0.012	−0.010	0.009
Func -> R	−0.015	0.015	−0.045**	0.015	−0.048***	0.011	−0.055***	0.012	−0.060***	0.011	−0.075***	0.010
Nperm -> R	−0.187***	0.014	−0.192***	0.015	−0.203***	0.011	−0.211***	0.010	−0.199***	0.011	−0.192***	0.010
Overcrowding-> R	−0.146***	0.015	−0.170***	0.012	−0.164***	0.011	−0.169***	0.011	−0.096***	0.012	−0.077***	0.010
R-square	0.240		0.285		0.337		0.331		0.345		0.341
Adjusted R-square	0.238		0.284		0.336		0.329		0.344		0.340

Note: R = residential satisfaction; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Table 7. PLS-SEM: the effect of housing quality on suicide ideation through the mediation of residential satisfaction and/or depression.

	Young men		Young women		Middle-aged men		Middle-aged women		Older men		Older women
	b	SD	b	SD	b	SD	b	SD	b	SD	b	SD
Total effect
Basement -> S	0.014	0.020	0.029	0.021	0.008	0.014	0.023	0.014	0.014	0.014	0.001	0.012
Bath -> S	−0.025***	0.004	−0.007	0.012	0.002	0.013	0.025	0.015	0.012	0.013	−0.015	0.008
Disaster -> S	0.016	0.019	−0.005	0.015	−0.011	0.013	0.003	0.013	−0.002	0.013	0.002	0.011
Functional -> S	−0.027*	0.010	0.006	0.016	0.026*	0.013	0.001	0.012	0.003	0.012	0.013	0.011
Structural -> S	0.018	0.016	0.013	0.015	−0.009	0.011	0.027*	0.013	−0.010	0.013	0.008	0.011
Overcrowding -> S	0.032	0.020	−0.011	0.012	0.017	0.014	−0.008	0.013	0.009	0.015	−0.014	0.008
R -> S	−0.044**	0.015	−0.005	0.015	−0.023	0.015	−0.014	0.014	0.010	0.012	−0.009	0.011
Indirect effect
Basement -> D -> S	−0.004	0.002	0.004	0.004	0.000	0.003	0.002	0.003	0.004	0.002	0.002	0.002
Basement -> R -> S	0.005*	0.002	0.000	0.002	0.001	0.001	0.001	0.001	−0.001	0.001	0.001	0.001
Basement -> R -> D -> S	0.001**	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.001**	0.000	0.001**	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Bath -> D -> S	0.005	0.002	−0.003	0.003	−0.003	0.003	0.007*	0.003	0.003	0.002	0.001	0.002
Bath -> R -> S	0.002	0.001	0.000	0.001	0.001	0.001	0.000	0.001	−0.001	0.001	0.001	0.001
Bath -> R -> D -> S	0.000*	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.001**	0.000	0.000*	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Disaster -> D -> S	0.001	0.002	−0.005	0.003	0.003	0.003	0.003	0.002	−0.001	0.002	0.001	0.002
Disaster -> R -> S	0.001	0.001	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Disaster -> R -> D -> S	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Functional -> D -> S	0.003	0.003	0.011**	0.004	0.006*	0.003	0.002	0.003	0.007**	0.002	0.005*	0.002
Functional -> R -> S	0.001	0.001	0.000	0.001	0.001	0.001	0.000	0.001	−0.001	0.001	0.001	0.001
Functional -> R -> D -> S	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000*	0.000	0.000*	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Structural -> D -> S	0.001	0.003	0.003	0.004	0.000	0.003	0.006*	0.003	0.001	0.002	0.006**	0.002
Structural -> R -> S	0.007*	0.003	0.000	0.003	0.003	0.003	0.001	0.003	−0.002	0.002	0.002	0.002
Structural -> R -> D -> S	0.002**	0.001	0.001	0.001	0.002**	0.001	0.002**	0.001	0.000	0.001	0.000	0.000
Overcrowding -> D -> S	−0.004	0.002	0.003	0.003	0.000	0.003	−0.003	0.003	0.006*	0.003	−0.002	0.002
Overcrowding -> R -> S	0.005*	0.002	0.000	0.003	0.002	0.002	0.001	0.002	−0.001	0.001	0.001	0.001
Overcrowding -> R -> D -> S	0.001**	0.000	0.001	0.001	0.002**	0.001	0.001**	0.001	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
R -> D -> S	−0.008*	0.003	−0.004	0.003	−0.010**	0.003	−0.009*	0.003	−0.001	0.002	0.001	0.002
Direct effect
Basement -> S	0.013	0.020	0.024	0.019	0.006	0.013	0.020	0.013	0.011	0.013	−0.002	0.012
Bath -> S	−0.032***	0.006	−0.004	0.012	0.004	0.014	0.017	0.015	0.011	0.013	−0.018*	0.008
Disaster -> S	0.014	0.018	0.000	0.014	−0.015	0.011	0.000	0.012	−0.001	0.012	0.001	0.011
Functional -> S	−0.031**	0.010	−0.005	0.016	0.019	0.012	−0.002	0.011	−0.003	0.011	0.008	0.010
Structural -> S	0.009	0.015	0.010	0.015	−0.014	0.011	0.018	0.013	−0.009	0.012	0.000	0.010
Overcrowding -> S	0.029	0.019	−0.014	0.012	0.013	0.013	−0.008	0.013	0.003	0.015	−0.012	0.009
R -> S	−0.036*	0.014	−0.001	0.015	−0.013	0.014	−0.005	0.013	0.011	0.012	−0.010	0.010
D -> S	0.183***	0.028	0.281***	0.028	0.277***	0.020	0.304***	0.016	0.248***	0.015	0.280***	0.013
R-square	0.073		0.109		0.117		0.139		0.111		0.108
Adjusted R-square	0.070		0.106		0.115		0.137		0.109		0.107

Note: R = residential satisfaction, D = depression, S = suicide ideation; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Table 8. Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) of correlations.

	Alc	Bas	Bat	City	Dep	Dis	FC	Fun	Hea	Deb	Own	Inc	Job	Stru	Ove	RS	SE	JS	IS	RelS	Sin	Ove
Alcohol
Basement	0.029
Bath	0.001	0.006
City	0.017	0.094	0.084
Depression	0.048	0.075	0.086	0.000
Disaster	0.014	0.082	0.121	0.027	0.056
FC	0.014	0.047	0.037	0.025	0.171	0.047
Functional	0.011	0.153	0.091	0.038	0.080	0.218	0.063
Health	0.085	0.043	0.074	0.038	0.349	0.048	0.040	0.040
Housing debt	0.003	0.015	0.042	0.068	0.028	0.015	0.011	0.026	0.050
Home-owned	0.010	0.231	0.027	0.255	0.154	0.020	0.078	0.086	0.087	0.059
Income	0.029	0.038	0.074	0.048	0.127	0.025	0.031	0.021	0.130	0.120	0.059
Jobless	0.081	0.050	0.014	0.246	0.111	0.009	0.005	0.006	0.131	0.027	0.113	0.030
Structural	0.025	0.147	0.204	0.052	0.111	0.201	0.122	0.304	0.072	0.059	0.061	0.058	0.030
Overdue	0.010	0.010	0.000	0.004	0.031	0.006	0.034	0.008	0.013	0.049	0.018	0.006	0.004	0.008
RS	0.004	0.165	0.187	0.027	0.202	0.093	0.117	0.171	0.160	0.052	0.199	0.089	0.019	0.267	0.023
SE	0.061	0.089	0.100	0.009	0.519	0.065	0.194	0.079	0.337	0.038	0.191	0.153	0.175	0.112	0.019	0.255
JS	0.032	0.051	0.073	0.017	0.306	0.046	0.121	0.065	0.218	0.023	0.116	0.124	0.067	0.092	0.027	0.298	0.321
IS	0.031	0.077	0.095	0.010	0.290	0.043	0.149	0.060	0.248	0.034	0.156	0.201	0.027	0.103	0.029	0.315	0.316	0.413
RelS	0.067	0.050	0.058	0.064	0.292	0.013	0.160	0.047	0.201	0.004	0.162	0.083	0.099	0.046	0.027	0.285	0.392	0.370	0.256
Single	0.028	0.053	0.106	0.029	0.159	0.030	0.099	0.026	0.111	0.082	0.165	0.172	0.101	0.057	0.002	0.029	0.123	0.032	0.016	0.001
Overcrowding	0.005	0.080	0.102	0.038	0.031	0.032	0.049	0.064	0.027	0.014	0.118	0.004	0.007	0.071	0.014	0.119	0.059	0.033	0.053	0.050	0.053
SI	0.001	0.039	0.014	0.026	0.314	0.024	0.122	0.041	0.114	0.012	0.099	0.042	0.039	0.047	0.016	0.086	0.197	0.114	0.120	0.088	0.049	0.007

Note: RS = residential satisfaction; IS = income satisfaction; JS = job satisfaction; RelS = satisfaction with social relationship; SI = suicide ideation; FC = family conflict.

Kim, M., Kim, T., Oh, M., Park, H., Shin, J., Jeong, H., Lee, J., Lee, B., Park, N., Lee, B., Tae, K., Ahn, S., Park, J., Lee, S., Jeong, W., Lee, S., Kim, H. & Ham, S. (2016) The 2016 Korea Welfare Panel Study (KOWEPS) – Descriptive report. Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs. Available at https://www.kihasa.re.kr/ (accessed 10 February 2019).

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Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in Korea Welfare Panel Study at https://www.koweps.re.kr:442/eng/main.do.