Understanding the consequences of international migration for housing tenure: evidence from a multi-site and intergenerational study

Figures & data

Figure 1. Housing tenure patterns in Turkey and Europe. Source: OECD (2012)

Table 1. Dependent, independent and control variables.

DEPENDENT VARIABLE		DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
Housing tenure	1 own it outright 2 mortgage or loan 3 tenant 4 rent-free 5 other	52% [3032] 5% [272] 31% [1778] 11% [632] 1% [92]
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
Family migration background	1 male ancestor is a migrant 0 non-migrant – REF	81% [4813] 19% [1155]
Individual migration status (*)	1 settler in Europe 2 returnee to Turkey 3 stayer in Turkey – REF	39% [2333] 16% [921] 45% [2674]
Individual migration status by housing regime (**)	0 returnee to Turkey 1 stayer in Turkey - REF 2 settler into regulated rental regime 3 settler into regulated expansion regime 4 settler into liberal expansion regime	16% [921] 46% [2699] 17% [1003] 12% [705] 10% [610]
Age	Age in years [17-90]	[5910 obs, mean = 41, std. = 18]
Sex	1 men 0 woman – REF	62% [3688] 38% [2278]
Marital status	1 currently married 0 other – REF	71% [4206] 29% [1729]
Household size	Number of people living in respondent’s household [1-11]	[5967 obs., mean 3, std. = 2]
Parental asset status (***)	Full or part ownership of land, business and/or house by the parent/s in their current country of residence [0-6 scale]	[3432 dyads, mean = 2.3, std. 1.7]
CONTROL VARIABLES
Regional origin of migration	1 Şarkışla – REF 2 Acıpayam 3 Akçaabat 4 Emirdağ 5 Kulu	14% [806] 24% [1404] 24% [1453] 19% [1139] 20% [1166]

Notes: (*) Only employed in Model 1; (**) Employed in Model 2 and 3; (***) Only employed in Model 3.

Source: 2000 Families Survey, personal data.

Table 2. Cross-tabulations with individual migration status.

	Settlers in Europe	Returnees to Turkey	Stayers in Turkey
Housing tenure
Own it outright	42% (946)	77% (696)	53% (1374)
Mortgage or loan	8% (181)	2% (19)	3% (71)
Tenant	43% (975)	13% (114)	26% (676)
Rent free	6% (142)	7% (66)	16% (420)
Other	1% (12)	1% (9)	3% (68)
Families with migrant ancestry	93% (2164)	94% (861)	66% (1753)
Age *	39 (17; 2295 obs)	59 (std 18; 916 obs)	37 (15; 2661 obs)
Sex - women	37% (862)	17% (157)	46% (1240)
Marital status - married	70% (1614)	86% (779)	67% (1794)
Household size *	3.1 (1.7; 2333 obs)	2.9 (1.6, 920 obs)	3.6 (1.7, 2674 obs)
Parental asset status * +	1.7 (1.6; 1456 obs)	3.0 (1.7; 221 obs)	2.6 (1.6; 1732 obs)
Regional origin of migration
Şarkışla	12% (271)	18% (162)	13% (358)
Acıpayam	18% (414)	30% (275)	27% (708)
Akçaabat	11% (262)	29% (264)	34% (915)
Emirdağ	35% (815)	8% (76)	9% (243)
Kulu	25% (571)	16% (144)	17% (450)

Source: 2000 Families Survey, personal data.

Notes: (*) mean scores with standard deviations and no of cases in parathesis. (+) only included in the dyadic analyses.

Table 3. Housing tenure by migration status and country housing regime.

Tenure	Stayers in Turkey	Returnees to Turkey	Settlers into regulated rental regime	Settlers into regulated expansion regime	Settlers into liberal expansion regime
Own outright	53%	77%	32%	62%	36%
Mortgage/loan	3%	2%	8%	9%	8%
Tenant	26%	13%	52%	24%	50%
Rent-free	16%	7%	8%	4%	6%
Other	3%	1%	0%	1%	0%

Source: 2000 Families Survey, personal data.

Notes: Countries falling under regulated rental (Austria, Germany, Switzerland); regulated expansion (Belgium and France); liberal expansion (Denmark, Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands).

Table 4. Housing tenure by internal migration status of stayers in Turkey.

Tenure	Non-migrant stayers	Internal migrant stayers
Own outright	59% (1158)	34% (216)
Mortgage/loan	2% (37)	5% (32)
Tenant	20% (392)	44% (282)
Rent-free	17% (331)	13% (86)
Other	2% (40)	4% (28)

Source: 2000 Families Survey, personal data.

Table 5. Model 1: Multinomial estimations of housing tenure (N = 5688).

	Mortgage or loan holder	Tenant	Living rent free
Base outcome: Outright home owner
Family migration background (a)	0.09 (0.12)	0.00 (0.09)	0.10 (0.10)
Individual migration status (b)
settler in Europe	1.03 (0.11) ***	0.93 (0.08) ***	−0.14 (0.09)
returnee to Turkey	−0.12 (0.15)	−0.32 (0.10) ***	−0.42 (0.12) ***
Age	−0.03 (0.00) ***	−0.04 (0.00) ***	−0.03 (0.00) ***
Sex (c)	0.06 (0.09)	−0.01 (0.06)	−0.01 (0.07)
Marital status (d)	0.68 (0.12) ***	0.42 (0.07) ***	−0.14 (0.08)
Household size	0.01 (0.03)	−0.10 (0.02) ***	0.03 (0.02)
Regional origin of migration (e)
Acıpayam	−0.48 (0.14) ***	−0.47 (0.11) ***	−0.88 (0.12) ***
Akçaabat	−0.78 (0.15) ***	−0.58 (0.11) ***	−1.09 (0.12) ***
Emirdağ	−1.10 (0.15) ***	−1.49 (0.13) ***	−1.73 (0.14) ***
Kulu	−1.09 (0.16) ***	−0.53 (0.11) ***	−1.39 (0.14) ***
Constant	−0.73 (0.22) ***	1.47 (0.15) ***	1.01 (0.17) ***

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

(a) REF: families with non-migrant ancestors; (b) REF: stayers in Turkey.

(c) REF: women; (d) REF: unmarried; (e) REF: Şarkışla.

Source: 2000 Families Survey, personal data.

Table 6. Model 2: Multinomial estimations of housing tenure (N = 5695).

	Mortgage or loan holder	Tenant	Living rent free
Base outcome: Outright home owner
Family migration background (a)	0.09 (0.12)	0.01 (0.08)	0.10 (0.10)
Individual migration status by housing regime (b)
returnee to Turkey	−0.12 (0.15)	−0.32 (0.10) ***	−0.41 (0.12) ***
settler into regulated rental	1.09 (0.13) ***	1.10 (0.09) ***	−0.03 (0.11)
settler into regulated expansion	0.89 (0.17) ***	0.32 (0.14) ***	−0.42 (0.17) ***
settler into liberal expansion	1.08 (0.16) ***	0.98 (0.12) ***	−0.13 (0.16)
Age	−0.03 (0.00) ***	−0.04 (0.00) ***	−0.03 (0.07) ***
Sex (c)	0.06 (0.09)	−0.03 (0.06)	−0.03 (0.07)
Marital status (d)	0.70 (0.12) ***	0.44 (0.07) ***	−0.13 (0.08)
Household size	0.01 (0.03)	−0.10 (0.02) ***	0.03 (0.02)
Regional origin of migration (e)
Acıpayam	−0.47 (0.15) ***	−0.46 (0.11) ***	−0.87 (0.12) ***
Akçaabat	−0.78 (0.15) ***	−0.59 (0.11) ***	−1.08 (0.12) ***
Emirdağ	−1.03 (0.17) ***	−1.15 (0.14) ***	−1.58 (0.15) ***
Kulu	−1.11 (0.16) ***	−0.57 (0.12) ***	−1.40 (0.14) ***
Constant	−0.73 (0.22) ***	1.45 (0.15) ****	1.01 (0.17) ***

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

(a) REF: families with non-migrant ancestors; (b) REF: stayers in Turkey.

(c) REF: women; (d) REF: unmarried; (e) REF: Şarkışla.

Source: 2000 Families Survey, personal data.

Table 7. Model 3: Dyadic multinomial estimations of housing tenure (N = 3295).

	Mortgage or loan holder	Tenant	Living rent free
Base outcome: Outright home owner
Family migration background (a)	0.00 (0.15)	−0.14 (0.10)	0.07 (0.13)
Individual migration status by country housing regime (b)
returnee to Turkey	0.16 (0.23)	0.01 (0.15)	−0.12 (0.18)
settler into regulated rental	1.01 (0.16)***	0.81 (0.11)***	−0.14 (0.13)
settler into regulated expansion	0.60 (0.23)***	0.00 (0.17)	−0.64 (0.20)**
settler into liberal expansion	1.05 (0.20)***	0.57 (0.15)***	−0.47 (0.19)**
Age	−0.03 (0.01)***	−0.04 (0.00)***	−0.03 (0.01)***
Sex (c)	0.17 (0.10)	0.00 (0.07)	−0.00 (0.08)
Marital status (d)	0.89 (0.15)***	0.62 (0.09)***	0.03 (0.11)
Household size	0.01 (0.03)	−0.13 (0.02)***	0.02 (0.03)
Parental asset status	−0.05 (0.03)	−0.17 (0.02)***	−0.12 (0.03)***
Regional origin of migration (e)
Acıpayam	−0.18 (0.19)	−0.19 (0.14)	−0.64 (0.15)***
Akçaabat	−0.80 (0.21)***	−0.38 (0.15)**	−0.98 (0.16)***
Emirdağ	−0.91 (0.23)***	−1.11 (0.17)***	−1.52 (0.19)***
Kulu	−1.00 (0.21)***	−0.42 (0.15)**	−1.23 (0.18)***
Constant	−0.86 (0.30)***	1.77 (0.20)***	1.12 (0.24)***

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

(a) REF: families with non-migrant ancestors; (b) REF: stayers in Turkey.

(c) REF: women; (d) REF: unmarried; (e) REF: Şarkışla.

Source: 2000 Families Survey, personal data.

Table 8. Model 4: Dyadic multinomial estimations of housing tenure with interaction term (N = 3295).

	Mortgage or loan holder	Tenant	Living rent free
Base outcome: Outright home owner
Family migration background (a)	0.00 (0.15)	−0.14 (0.10)	0.07 (0.13)
Individual migration status by country housing regime (b)
returnee to Turkey	0.41 (0.38)	−0.34 (0.28)	−0.32 (0.32)
settler into regulated rental	0.80 (0.25) **	0.63 (0.15) ***	−0.20 (0.19)
settler into regulated expansion	0.47 (0.32)	0.09 (0.25)	−0.92 (0.32) **
settler into liberal expansion	0.82 (0.27) **	0.46 (0.15) *	−0.49 (0.24) *
Age	−0.03 (0.01) ***	−0.04 (0.00) ***	−.03 (0.01) ***
Sex (c)	0.17 (0.10)	0.01 (0.07)	−0.00 (0.08)
Marital status (d)	0.89 (0.15) ***	0.61 (0.09) ***	0.03 (0.11)
Household size	0.01 (0.03)	−0.13 (0.02) ***	0.02 (0.03)
Parental asset status	−0.09 (0.05)	−0.20 (0.03) ***	−0.14 (0.04) ***
Parental asset x migration status (e)
returnee to Turkey	−0.09 (0.11)	0.12 (0.08)	0.07 (0.10)
settler into regulated rental	0.09 (0.08)	0.08 (0.05)	0.02 (0.07)
settler into regulated expansion	0.04 (0.11)	−0.08 (0.10)	0.14 (0.13)
settler into liberal expansion	0.11 (0.10)	0.05 (0.08)	−0.01 (0.11)
Regional origin of migration (f)
Acıpayam	−0.15 (0.19)	−0.18 (0.14)	−0.64 (0.15) ***
Akçaabat	−0.78 (0.21) ***	−0.38 (0.15) **	−0.98 (0.16) ***
Emirdağ	−0.89 (0.23) ***	−1.10 (0.17) ***	−1.52 (0.19) ***
Kulu	−0.99 (0.21) ***	−0.42 (0.15) **	−-1.22 (0.18) ***
Constant	−0.77 (0.30) *	1.86 (0.21) ***	1.16 (0.24) ***

Notes: Standard errors in parentheses. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

(a) REF: families with non-migrant ancestors; (b) REF: stayers in Turkey.

(c) REF: women; (d) REF: unmarried; (e) REF: stayers in Turkey; (f) REF: Şarkışla.

Source: 2000 Families Survey, personal data.

OECD (2012) Housing, Database, Available at https://www.oecd.org/housing/data/affordable-housing-database/housing-market.htm (accessed 28 April 2023).

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