Visually-Induced Motor Imagery Effects on Motor Adaptation to Reverse Steering Cycling. A Randomized Controlled Trial

Figures & data

Table 1. Tasks of the standard balance deficit test (SBDT) (V: Visual, P: Proprioception, VB: Vestibular).

Static tests
Standing on two legs, eyes open (STEO) (V, P, VB)
Standing on two legs, eyes closed (STEC) (P, VB)
Standing on one leg, eyes open (SOEO) (V, P, VB)
Standing on one leg, eyes closed (SOEC) (P, VB)
Standing on two legs, eyes open, on a foam support (STEOF) (V, VB)
Standing on two legs with eyes closed on a foam support (STECF) (VB)
Standing on one leg on a foam support surface (SOEOF) (V, VB)
Dynamic tests
Eight tandem steps, eyes open (WTL) (V, P, VB)
Eight tandem steps, eyes open, on a foam support (WEF) (V, VB)
Walking 3 m with eyes open (WTMEO) (V, P, VB)
Walking 3 m with eyes open while rotating head (WTMR) (V, P)
Walking 3 m with eyes open while vertically pitching the head in rhythm (WTMP) (V, P)
Walking 3 m forward with eyes closed (WTMEC) (P, VB)
Walking over four barriers (WOB) (V, P, VB)

Figure 1. Experimental protocol scheme.

Table 2. Descriptive and balance data of the two study groups. BMI: Body Mass Index (kg/m²); lat: Angular velocity in the lateral plane (degrees/sec); front: Angular velocity in the frontal plane (degrees/sec).

	Control		Exp. (EN)		Statistics
	(n = 24)		(n = 24)
	Avg.	Std.	Avg.	Std.
Age	23.57	2.85	23.04	1.66	F(1,46) = .549, p = .463
BMI	20.89	2.72	22.26	3.21	F(1,46) = 2.226, p = .144
Female	14		13		χ^2(1) = .085, p = .771
Male	10		11
Risk of falling	37.67	10.21	40.76	10.54	F(1,46) = .934, p = .340
Balance participation (%)
Visual	18.05	27.43	33.38	36.09	F(1,46) = 2.403, p = .129
Proprioceptive	19.52	26.98	31.62	23.96	F(1,46) = 2.360, p = .132
Vestibular	10.38	24.58	22.24	19.97	F(1,46) = 2.943, p = .094
STEO lat	.3629	.0650	.3862	.1129	F(1,46) = .674, p = .416
STEC lat	.3830	.0889	.3496	.1020	F(1,46) = 3.968, p = .053
SOEO lat	.7261	.5430	.6539	.2274	F(1,46) = 1.191, p = .282
SOEC lat	2.3148	1.2650	1.7581	1.1809	F(1,46) = 2.173, p = .148
WT lat	4.0352	1.1024	3.8926	1.2183	F(1,46) = .635, p = .430
STEOF lat	.5522	.1793	.4943	.1468	F(1,46) = 2.079, p = .157
STECF lat	.6630	.1914	.6243	.2465	F(1,46) = 2.347, p = .133
SOEOF lat	1.1883	.4617	1.0683	.8043	F(1,46) = 5.584, p = .023
					η^2p = .123, 1-β = .635*
WEF lat	5.7457	1.8337	5.4117	2.4967	F(1,46) = .591, p = .447
WTMEO lat	5.6978	1.9743	6.1765	2.3206	F(1,46) = .120, p = .731
WTMR lat	6.5561	1.8083	6.4465	1.9147	F(1,46) = .016, p = .901
WTMP lat	6.3465	2.1639	5.9922	1.7938	F(1,46) = .219, p = .642
WTMEC lat	5.7687	2.0377	5.6248	1.9459	F(1,46) = .033, p = .857
WOB lat	7.6191	2.4431	6.8230	2.5333	F(1,46) = 2.250, p = .141
STEO front	.2926	.0826	.2765	.0821	F(1,46) = .350, p = .558
STEC front	.3057	.0879	.2674	.0748	F(1,46) = 2.790, p = .103
SOEO front	.5013	.2306	.4561	.1191	F(1,46) = 1.788, p = .189
SOEC front	2.0238	1.5310	1.2767	1.0669	F(1,46) = 3.367, p = .074
WT front	3.4457	.9191	3.5500	1.4169	F(1,46) = .014, p = .905
STEOF front	.3883	.1079	.3600	.0829	F(1,46) = 1.104, p = .300
STECF front	.4757	.1239	.4622	.1950	F(1,46) = .640, p = .428
SOEOF front	.8352	.3745	.7204	.4425	F(1,46) = 3.426, p = .072
WEF front	4.8222	1.1725	4.7083	2.3432	F(1,46) = .383, p = .539
WTMEO front	4.1852	1.3717	4.8357	2.0587	F(1,46) = 1.328, p = .256
WTMR front	5.1322	1.5302	5.3226	1.8118	F(1,46) = .052, p = .820
WTMP front	5.1096	1.6099	5.3578	1.7310	F(1,46) = .353, p = .556
WTMEC front	4.1565	.9453	4.8243	2.0800	F(1,46) = 2.005, p = .165
WOB front	6.2809	1.4736	6.0613	2.3821	F(1,46) = .269, p = .607

* Observed power.

Table 3. Inverse steering bicycle (ISB) riding adaptation results for the two study groups. min: minutes.

	Control		Experimental (EN)
	(n = 24)		(n = 24)
Fail	14		15
Success (female)	10 (2)		9 (3)		F(1,6) = .053, p = .826
	Avg.	Std.	Avg.	Std.
					F(1,17) = 10.861, p = .004
Successful adaptation time (min)	39.67	9.10	53.70	9.42	η^2p = .390, 1-β = .874*

* Observed power.

Table 4. Statistically significant differences in descriptive and balance variables of the subjects in the study split by sex. BMI: Body Mass Index (kg/m²); lat: Angular velocity in the lateral plane (degrees/sec); front: Angular velocity in the frontal plane (degrees/sec).

	Male		Female		Statistics
	(n = 21)		(n = 27)
	Avg.	Std.	Avg.	Std.
BMI	23.12	2.81	20.54	2.60	F(1,46) = 7.975, p = .007 η^2p = .166, 1-β = .787*
Risk of falling	44.35	8.46	37.31	11.64	F(1,46) = 5.028, p = .031 η^2p = .112, 1-β = .590*
Balance participation (%)
Proprioceptive	43.75	30.92	16.88	24.73	F(1,46) = 8.477, p = .006 η^2p = .175, 1-β = .811*
WTMR lat	5.5330	1.4215	6.6588	2.2138	F(1,46) = 4.527, p = .040 η^2p = .102, 1-β = .546*
WTMEC lat	6.6820	2.1394	7.6358	2.7021	F(1,46) = 5.459, p = .025 η^2p = .120, 1-β = .626*

* Observed power.