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Abstract
In the past women have been excluded from peace initiatives. However, with the advent of UNSCR 1325 (2000) women's agency in the process has been heightened through a new framework for involvement. UNSCR 1325 is a policy document that acknowledges the link between women, peace, and security and uses gender mainstreaming as a mechanism to implement its objectives. Yet in spite of its policy advancements, over a decade later women still do not participate equally in peace and security initiatives that impact on the sustainability of peace. This article aims to explore the context of this framework through considerations of the gender mainstreaming provision in the disarmament, demobilization, rehabilitation, and reintegration (DDRR) process in Liberia. Using interviews with women associated with fighting forces (WAFFs)/ex-combatants the article argues that although there was a specific targeted focus showing some gender responsive design and coordination, WAFFs’/ex-combatants’ unique needs, especially those of a social and psychological nature, were poorly addressed. In addition, the commentary shows that the focus did not attend to structural inequality issues such as sexual and gender based violence (SGBV).
Acknowledgments
The author thanks the Conflict Resolution Unit of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Ireland and the Irish Research Council for funding to conduct this research. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the funders. Gratitude is also expressed to the National Ex-combatant Peacebuilding Initiative (NEPI) for field assistance and to Neil Robinson and Tom Lodge for their comments on early drafts of this manuscript.
Notes
1The term WAFF is used in this study, as the majority of the participants were not engaged in front line combat. While CitationJennings (2008:32) suggests that this title does not acknowledge the agency of those that were active combatants, it was felt that using the term ex-combatant solely would be similarly exclusionary for those engaged in supportive positions. Therefore, both terms are used to reflect the multiplicity of their roles.
2I am aware that women are not a homogenous group and one cannot assume that they react similarly. This research chooses to use the term women but acknowledges the differences across the group. It also assumes that girls will fall under the same group unless explicitly stated. Although some may view this as a limitation, this research takes the perspective of CitationKaufman and Williams (2010:4) that generalizing across groups of women becomes a heuristic device from which tentative conclusions can be formulated.
3These include the “Briefing Notes on Gender Perspectives on Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration” (CitationUNDDA 2001), which led to the 2003 “Gender Mainstreaming Action Plan”; “Getting it Right, Doing it Right: Gender and Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration” (CitationUNIFEM 2004); UN Secretary General's Report (CitationUNSCR 2004); and the “Integrated DDR Standards: Women, Gender and DDR” (CitationUNDDR, 2006).
4This was due to many proxy cases being able to register in the process. It was common practice for commanders to circulate weapons to civilians who registered in the process and split the cash reward. It is believed that a quarter of those registered into the process were labeled as other rather than a member of a specific group, suggesting fraudulent cases (CitationPaes 2005:257).
5It is worth noting here however that the previous SRSG Alan Doss was heavily invested in improving UNMIL's gender profile.
6Interview with head of NGO, NEPI Inc., February 24, 2010.
7Interview with head of VOA Cantonment, February 27, 2010.
8Interview with female commander, November 22, 2010.
9Interviewee, self-demobilized, participant 14, location 1, February 14, 2011.
10Interviewee, self-demobilized, participant 11, location 1, February 14, 2011.
11Interviewee, self-demobilized, NEPI office, November 17, 2010.
12Interviewee, self-demobilized, participant 15, location 1, February 14, 2011.
13Interviewee, main program, participant 7, location 8, November 16, 2010.
14Interviewee, residual caseload, participant 4, location 4, February 3, 2011.
15Interviewee, main program, participant 6, location 1, November 11, 2010.
16Interviewee, main program, participant 6, location 8, November 16, 2010.
17Interview with head of VOA Cantonment, February 27, 2010.
18Interviewee, residual caseload, participant 4, location 4, February 11, 2011.
19Interviewee, self-demobilized, participant 12, location 1, February 14, 2011.
20Interviewee, residual caseload, location 3 participant 6, February 3, 2011.
21Focus group, WAFF/ex-combatant, participant 1, location 1, November 15, 2010.
22Empowerment is defined here as a process of change through the ability to exercise choice and includes the resources available, the ability to define ones goals and act upon them and the combination of the two that leds to achievements (CitationKabeer 1999:438).
23Interviewee, main program, participant 2, location 1, November 11, 2010.
24Interviewee, main program, participant 5, location 1, November 11, 2010.
25Interviewee, residual caseload, participant 4, location 4, February 3, 2011.
26Interviewee, residual caseload, participant 11, location 8, February 5, 2011.
27Interview with female commander, November 22, 2010.
28Interviewee, main program, participant 3, location 8, November 16, 2010.
29Research has shown that when there is violence against women after conflict it is often more frequent and severe (CitationCockburn 2007:212).
30These include a rape law passed in 2006; a new criminal court (Court E) that only tries GBV cases; a National GBV taskforce; a national Plan of Action for GBV; a “Zero Tolerance Policy” on sexual exploitation and abuse in UN Peacekeeping operations as well as a SGBV Crimes Unit and anti-rape campaign with a dedicated hotline for women to call if they experience violence.