Repression and Migration: Forced Labour Exile of Mozambicans to São Tomé, 1948–1955

Abstract

The forced exile of Mozambican and Angolan labourers to cocoa plantations on the islands of São Tomé in the early 1900s sparked an international scandal and has subsequently generated considerable historical interest. Its later incarnation during the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, has attracted little scholarly attention. Focusing on central Mozambique, this article explores the forced labour exile of ‘undesirables’ and convicts as a product of colonial social and economic relations beyond the paradigm of resistance and repression. In particular, it considers the use of exile as a means of enforcing and reinforcing administrative power and prestige, rather than as a defence against perceived threats to the political and social prerogatives of the colonial state. It also cites the importance of labour demands in São Tomé, rather than the exigencies of colonial control within Mozambique, in spurring the expansion in the number of coerced labourers. Finally, it discusses the widespread exile of economic migrants – both international and internal – into forced labour on São Tomé, arguing that this demonstrates the Portuguese colonial regime's deep concern with its inability to control migrant labour flows, as well as the vulnerability of those migrants who contravened the colonial pass laws that sought to restrict their mobility.

Notes

¹ See J. Duffy, A Question of Slavery (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1967); W.G. Clarence-Smith, ‘Cocoa Plantations and Coerced Labor in the Gulf of Guinea, 1870–1914’, in M. Klein (ed.), Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia (Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), pp. 150–70; M. Newitt, Portugal in Africa: The Last Hundred Years (London, Hurst, 1981), pp. 204–11; G. Siebert, Comrades, Clients, and Cousins: Colonialism, Socialism and Democratization in São Tomé and Principe (Leiden, Brill, 2006), pp. 47–54. For more on the aftermath of the scandal see M.E. Madeira Santos and V.L. Gaspar Rodrigues, ‘Política da Sociedade das Nações para a extinção da escravatura e do trabalho forçado em colónias africanas (1922–36): o caso português’, in Trabalho forçado africano – experiências coloniais comparadas (Porto, Campo das Letras, 2006), pp. 337–48.

^*The author would like to thank Emmanuel Kreike, Eric Allina, Gary Kynoch, Josie Stadler Egan, and two anonymous reviewers for their contributions.

² For examples, see A. Isaacman and B. Isaacman, Mozambique: From Colonialism to Revolution, 1900–1982 (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1982), pp. 46, 71, or J.M. das Neves, ‘Economy, Society and Labour Migration in Central Mozambique, 1930–c.1965: A Case Study of Manica Province’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of London, 1998), pp. 269, 286.

³ A. Nascimento, Desterro e contrato: Moçambicanos a caminho de S. Tomé e Príncipe, anos 1940–1960 (Maputo, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, 2002).

⁴ For a comparative example regarding the importance of manners see A. Shutt, ‘“The Natives Are Getting Out of Hand”: Legislating Manners, Insolence and Contemptuous Behaviour in Southern Rhodesia, c.1910–1963’, Journal of Southern African Studies [JSAS], 33, 3 (September 2007), pp. 653–72. See also J. Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism: Mozambican Strategies and Struggles in Lourenço Marques, 1877–1962 (Portsmouth, NH, Heinemann, 1995), pp. 142–8. Concern over decorum was particularly linked to notions of sexual propriety and fears of sexual aggression among African males. For specific examples from those sent into exile, see Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 103–5; for comparative analyses, see J. Pape, ‘Black and White: The “Perils of Sex” in Colonial Zimbabwe’, JSAS, 16, 4 (December 1990), pp. 699–720; J. McCullough, Black Peril, White Virtue: Sexual Crime in Southern Rhodesia, 1902–1935 (Bloomington, IN, Indiana University Press, 2000); or D.M. Anderson, ‘Sexual Threat and Settler Society: “Black Perils” in Kenya, c.1907–1930’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 38 (March 2010), pp. 47–74.

⁵ For more on the relationship between juridical punishment and administrative power, see K. Shear, ‘Constituting a State in South Africa: The Dialectics of Policing, 1900–1939’ (Ph.D. thesis, Northwestern University, 1998), or M. Chanock, The Making of South African Legal Culture, 1902–1936: Fear, Favour, and Prejudice (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2001). For a related analysis of the highly visible symbolic relationship between punishment and administration, see S. Hynd, ‘Killing and the Condemned: The Practice and Process of Capital Punishment in British Africa, 1900–1950s’, Journal of African History [JAH], 49 (2008), pp. 403–18; for a related work that uses the lens of clemency, see R. Turrell, White Mercy: A Study of the Death Penalty in South Africa (Westport, CT, Praeger, 2004).

⁶ For more on the control of internal migration, see C. Tornimbeni and M. Newitt, ‘Transnational Networks and Internal Divisions in Central Mozambique’, Cahiers d'études africaines, 192, 4 (2008), pp. 707–40; for an overview of international migration from central Mozambique, see das Neves, ‘Economy, Society and Labour Migration’.

⁷ Studies on the control of labour in southern Africa are too vast to cite comprehensively, but for some leading examples from Mozambique see Duffy, A Question of Slavery; E. Allina-Pisano, ‘Negotiating Colonialism: Africans, the State, and the Market in Manica, Mozambique, 1895–c.1935’ (Ph.D. thesis, Yale University, 2002); J. Head, ‘State, Capital and Migrant Labour in Zambézia, Mozambique: A Study of the Labour Force of Sena Sugar Estates, Limited’ (Ph.D. thesis, University of Durham, 1980); L. Vail and L. White, Capitalism and Colonialism in Mozambique: A Case Study of Quelimane Province (Minneapolis. MN, University of Minnesota Press, 1980); A. Isaacman, Cotton is the Mother of Poverty: Peasants, Work and Rural Struggle in Colonial Mozambique, 1938–1961 (Portsmouth, NC, Heinemann, 1996). For analyses of forced labour control in Rhodesia during this time period, see D. Johnson, ‘Settler Farmers and Coerced Labour in Southern Rhodesia, 1936–46’, JAH, 33, 1 (1992), pp. 111–28, and K. Vickery, ‘The Second World-War Revival of Forced Labour in the Rhodesias’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 22, 3 (1989), pp. 423–37.

⁸ For a sample of the voluminous documentation on this point, see Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, Fundo do Governo do Distrito da Beira (FGDB), Caixa (Cx) 692, Repartição Central de Negócios Indígenas (RCNI) to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 2767/B/14, 23 December 1942; FGDB, Cx 692, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Circular, 4901/B/17, 31 July 1947; FGDB, Cx 132, Provincial Director to Intendant of Tete, 1367/A/18, 23 February 1948; FGDB, Cx 692, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Circular, 2183/B/17, 4 April 1949; FGDB, Cx 132, Intendant of Tete to Provincial Director, 1615/A/18, 3 July 1950; Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Circular, 6275/B/17, 7 August 1952; and FGDB, Cx 688, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Circular, 1310/B/17, 10 February 1955. For a broader overview, see das Neves, ‘Economy, Society, and Labor Migration’, Chapter 8.

⁹ For a related argument see F. Bernault, ‘The Politics of Enclosure in Colonial and Post-Colonial Africa’, in F. Bernault (ed.), A History of Prison and Confinement in Africa (Portsmouth, NC, Heinemann, 2003), pp. 34–8, as well as P. Boilley, ‘Administrative Confinements and Confinements of Exile’, in Bernault (ed.), A History of Prison and Confinement, pp. 221–37. For a wider analysis of colonialism through the lens of mobility, see ‘“Trees Never Meet”: An Overview’, in P. Hayes, J. Silvester, M. Wallace, W. Hartmann (eds), Namibia Under South African Rule: Mobility and Containment, 1915–46 (Athens, OH, Ohio University Press, 1998), pp. 3–50.

¹⁰ For an explicit example of this strand of thinking, see FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Sixpence or Coutinho, 83/B/17, 3 September 1949.

¹¹ See, for example, FGDB, Cx 132, Intendant of Tete to Provincial Government, 5 June 1950, 411/A/7, or FGDB, Cx 132, Inspector Alvaro G. de Melo to RCNI, 269/A/18, 11 July 1950. Rhodesia was also grappling with the possibility of labour shortages, and was simultaneously drawing workers from Nyasaland and Mozambique while endeavouring to prevent workers from seeking higher wages in South Africa; see D. Johnson, World War II and the Scramble for Labour in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1939–1948 (Harare, University of Zimbabwe Publications, 2000), Chapter 5.

¹² FGDB, Cx 683, RCNI to Governor-General, B/17/2, 26 January 1950.

¹³ FGDB, Cx 683, RCNI to Governor-General, B/17/2, 26 January 1950.

¹⁴ FGDB, Cx 683, RCNI to Governor-General, B/17/2, 26 January 1950 For more on the origins of the programme from the perspective of the central administration in Lourenço Marques, see Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 63–73.

¹⁵ For a history of the efforts of the Government of Manica and Sofala to promote the pass laws as colonial policy, see FGDB, Cx 683, Direcção dos Serviços dos Negócios Indígenas, Informação, 82/A/54/9, 27 August 1959. See also FGDB, Cx 683, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 167/B/17, 8 January 1948. The legal requirement to labour was re-established in 1942 by Circular 818/D/7, which modified slightly more liberal regulations enacted in 1930. For analyses of its impact see das Neves, ‘Economy, Society, and Labour Migration’, pp. 105–21, especially pp. 107–9, and Head, ‘State, Capital and Migrant Labour in Zambezia’, Chapter 2.

¹⁶ See FGDB, Cx 683, Administrator of Tete to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 267/B/17, 13 February 1950. During this era the District of Tete was bureaucratically subordinate to the Provincial Government of Manica and Sofala.

¹⁷ FGDB, Cx 683. Administrator of Chimoio to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 480/B/17, 14 February 1950.

¹⁸ FGDB, Cx 683, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 6964/B/17, 4 October 1950.

¹⁹ FGDB, Cx 683, Administrator of Cheringoma to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 283/B/17, 4 February 1950.

²⁰ FGDB, Cx 683, Administrator of Cheringoma to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 283/B/17, 4 February 1950; FGDB, Cx 683, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 7/B/17/2, 17 February 1950.

²¹ FGDB, Cx 683, Administrator of Gorongosa to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 259/B/17, 25 February 1950.

²² FGDB, Cx 683, Administrator of Marromeu to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 182/B/17, 10 February 1950.

²³ This process is well-covered by Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 68–108.

²⁴ FGDB, Cx 686, Administrator of Marromeu to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Proceedings against Cebola Sombreiro, Tomo, Inacio Souza and Muma Jange, 456/B/17, 12 April 1950.

²⁵ For examples, see FGDB, Cx 626, Provincial Director of Civil Administration to Chief Engineer of Tete Railway, 6772/B/11, 11 October 1948, or FGDB, Cx 684, Administrator of Sena, Report on Circular 2038/B/17.

²⁶ For more on this aspect of the expulsions see Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 84–6.

²⁷ FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against João Massassane, 86/B/17, 8 September 1949.

²⁸ FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Comissar Gançalo Culira, 68/B/17, 10 August 1949.

²⁹ For examples see FGDB, Cx 626, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 3822/B/11, 5 June 1948; Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 97–100; Isaacman and Isaacman, From Colonialism to Revolution, pp. 46, 71; Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism, p. 125; das Neves, ‘Economy, Society and Labour Migration’, pp. 133, 269, 286.

³⁰ FGDB, Cx 686, Proceedings against Luis Vumo, 22 March 1950.

³¹ There are many individual examples; see FGDB, Cx 685, Administrator of Mossurize to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 435/B/17, 6 May 1949; FGDB, Cx 687, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 9304/B/17, 9 December 1953; FGDB, Cx 687, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 84/B/17/8, 7 January 1955; FGDB, Cx 200, Intendant of Tete to Director of Provincial Civil Administration, 1708/A/30, 26 August 1949; FGDB, Cx 132, Intendant of Tete to Director of Provincial Civil Administration, 1537/A/17, 21 June 1950. For academic histories of the relationship between these religions and the colonial regime, see P. Pinto, ‘Jehovah's Witnesses in Colonial Mozambique’, Le Fait Missionaire: Social Sciences and Missions, 17 (December 2005), pp. 61–124, especially pp. 77–79 and 94–104, and G. Siebert, ‘“But the manifestation of the Spirit is given to every man to profit withal”: Zion Churches in Mozambique since the early 20th Century’, Le Fait Missionaire: Social Sciences and Missions, 17 (December 2005), pp. 125–50. See also Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 91–96, and das Neves, ‘Economy, Society and Labour Migration’, pp. 221, 294.

³² Portuguese administrators acknowledged their shared interests with the Rhodesian authorities in repressing Pentecostal sects; see FGDB, Cx 200, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 2166/A/30, 4 April 1949. For more on the Rhodesian government's dim view of Zionism, see D. Maxwell, ‘Historicizing Christian Independency: The Southern African Pentecostal Movement, c.1908–1960’, JAH, 40, 2 (1999), pp. 254–63. For a comparative example regarding the Jehovah's Witnesses, see K. Fields' seminal Revival and Rebellion in Central Africa (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1985), pp. 198–236, and J. Higginson, ‘Liberating the Captives: Independent Watchtower as an Avatar of Colonial Revolt in Southern Africa and Katanga, 1908–1941’, Journal of Social History, 26, 1 (1992), pp. 55–80.

³³ FGDB, Cx 626, Intendant of Tete to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 1587/B/11, 27 June 1950; FGDB, Cx 626, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Circular, 8088, 19 December 1947; FGDB, Cx 626, Administrator of Angonia to Intendant of Tete, 847/B/11, 28 July 1952; FGDB, Cx 626, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 148/B/11, 4 September 1952. The Catholic Church was highly supportive of state repression of these religions, formally requesting the ‘expulsion of the partisans of the Protestant sects of Zionism, 7th Day Adventists, and Watchtower [Jehovah's Witnesses], who nourish subversive ideas’; see, FGDB, Cx 628, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Circular, 3328/B/11, 7 April 1954. For an earlier example, see FGDB, Cx 626, Diocese of Beira to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 58/1948. For more on the broader relationship between the Church and the colonial administration, see M. Cahen, ‘L'état nouveau et la diversification religieuse au Mozambique, 1930–1974’, Cahiers d'études africaines, 158 (2000), pp. 309–49, or E. Mourier-Genoud, ‘The Catholic Church, Religious Orders and the Making of Politics in Colonial Mozambique: The Case of the Diocese of Beira, 1940–1974’ (Ph.D. thesis, State University of New York at Binghamton, 2005).

³⁴ FGDB, Cx 200, Tete District to Administrator of Mutarara, 1469/A/30, 16 October 1948.

³⁵ FGDB, Cx 626, Administrator of Angonia to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 1090/A/38, 11 December 1953.

³⁶ FGDB, Cx 689, ‘Activities of Foreign Religious Sects: The External Influence’, Administrator of Buzi to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 20 August 1954; FGDB, Cx 686, Administrator of Manica to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 651/A/11, 30 March 1953.

³⁷ FGDB, Cx 689, ‘Activities of Foreign Religious Sects: The External Influence’, Administrator of Buzi to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 20 August 1954.

³⁸ FGDB, Cx 684, Administrator of Buzi to Government of Manica and Sofala, 1055/B/17, 28 June 1948.

³⁹ FGDB, Cx 688, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 350/B/17, 14 January 1953.

⁴⁰ FGDB, Cx 688, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 350/B/17, 14 January 1953

⁴² FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Jemusse, 107/B/17, 22 October 1949.

⁴¹ See also Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 78–80.

⁴³ FGDB, Cx 686, Administration of Macanga to Civil Administration of Manica and Sofala, 1255/B/17, 30 November 1951; FGDB, Cx 686, RCNI to Civil Administration of Manica and Sofala, 1009/B/17/2, 10 March 1952.

⁴⁴ FGDB, Cx 688, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 4439/B/17/2, 21 September 1954. For excerpts of the relevant laws governing forced exile, which dated from around the turn of the century, see Circular, 5217/B/7, 26 July 1957, Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, Fundo do Concelho de Cheringoma (FCC), Cx 209. While the Repartição Central de Negócios Indígenas occasionally ordered prisoners to be released, either because of flaws in the cases against them or because they had already fulfilled their sentences, this was exceedingly rare; see FGDB, Cx 686, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 2144/B/72, 29 May 1952. See also Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 66–7, 80.

⁴⁵ For examples, see FGDB, Cx 684, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Informação, 34/B/7, 26 June 1948, or FGDB, Cx 684, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Informação, 33/B/17, 28 June 1948; more generally, see FGDB, Cx 626, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 148/B/11, 4 September 1952.

⁴⁶ FGDB, Cx 693, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Informação, 4/B/17, 16 January 1950; FGDB, Cx 686, Beira Council to Provincial Government, 1743/B/17, 29 August 1950. See also Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, pp. 109–116.

⁴⁷ FGDB, Cx 687, RCNI, Circular, 3509/B/17/2, 11 July 1955.

⁴⁸ FGDB, Cx 686, Provincial Government to RCNI, 5002/B/17, 20 July 1950.

⁴⁹ FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Samissone or Feripani, 118/A/11, 10 December 1949; FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Messeco, 96/A/11, 29 September 1949.

⁵⁰ See, for example, FGDB, Cx 686, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 2144/B/72, 29 May 1952; FGDB, Cx 687, Administrator of Buzi to Provincial Government, 15/B/17, 26 August 1954. Nascimento also cites convicts who escaped from Lourenço Marques and the Angolan port of Lobito while en route to São Tomé. See Desterro e contrato, pp. 47–8.

⁵¹ FGDB, Cx 684, Administrator of Mutarara to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 1219/B/17, 13 July 1948.

⁵² For examples, see FGDB, Cx 684, Administrator of Marromeu, reports on Transval, Jó, Chale, Quembo, João, Vale António, and Domingos Chapo, 19 July 1948.

⁵³ FGDB, Cx 688, Provincial Government to Administrator of Gorongosa, 1034/B/17, 26 November 1955. The same interpreter was the subject of many other complaints from residents of Gorongosa; see Arquivo Histórico de Moçambique, Fundo de Inspecção dos Serviços Administrativos e dos Negócios Indígenas, Cx 40, ‘Inspecção Às Circunscrições de Mossurize, Manica, Gorongosa, e Chimoio’, pp. 50–1.

⁵⁴ FGDB, Cx 686, Proceedings against Waite Nhamaze, 22 March 1950.

⁵⁵ FGDB, Cx 689, Provincial Director of Civil Administration to RCNI, 2383/B/8, 17 May 1955.

⁵⁶ For more on the system of urban labour control in postwar Mozambique see J. Penvenne, ‘Here Everyone Walked with Fear: The Mozambican Labor System and Workers of Lourenço Marques, 1945–1962’, in F. Cooper (ed.), Struggle for the City: Migrant Labor, Capital and the State in Urban Africa (Beverly Hills, CA, Sage, 1983), pp. 131–66. See also R. Gordon, ‘Vagrancy, Law & “Shadow Knowledge”: Internal Pacification, 1915–1939’, in Namibia Under South African Rule, pp. 51–76. For comparative studies of vagrancy in East Africa, where the word carried a different generational connotation but a similar administrative impact, see A. Burton, ‘Urchins, Loafers, and the Cult of the Cowboy: Urbanization and Delinquency in Dar es Salaam, 1919–61’, JAH, 42, 2 (2001), pp. 199–216, and P. Ocobock, ‘“Joy Rides for Juveniles”: Vagrant Youth and Colonial Control in Nairobi, Kenya, 1901–1952’, Social History, 31 (2006), pp. 39–59.

⁵⁷ See Boilley, ‘Administrative Confinements and Confinements of Exile’, for a comparative treatment of exiles' use as punishment against spatial transgressions.

⁵⁸ For examples, see FGDB, Cx 684, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Informação, 41/B/7, 17 August 1948; FGDB, Cx 684, Guia for Vaz Chiposse, Chiuande Jose, Zeca, Nhamite Fernando, Manuel, Joaquim Taua, Seda Nhamaraua, João Chantaunga, Chuzi Culeuana, and Mamba Sousa, 25 June 1948; or FGDB, Cx 684, Guia for Medina Temesse, Soroti or Fassani, Bseti or Pise, Torcho or Tandarique, Rewani or Carquene, Buiz, and Soka, 21 September 1948. For more on Mozambican participation in Rhodesian labour actions, see das Neves, ‘Economy, Society and Labour Migration’, pp. 266–70.

⁵⁹ For examples, see FGDB, Cx 692, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 3465/B/17, 30 May 1948; FGDB, Cx 684, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 17 March 1949, 925/B/17/3; FGDB, Cx 692, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Informação, 99/B/17, 29 September 1949; FGDB, Cx 688, Governor of Manica and Sofala, Circular, 6275/B/17/1, 7 August 1952; FGDB, Cx 688, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 3424/B/17/1, 30 August 1952; FGDB, Cx 688, Governor of Manica and Sofala to Administrations of Barue, Manica, Mossurize, Mutarara, Angonia, Macanga, Maravia, Zumbo, and Tete, 1310/B/17/1, 10 February 1955.

⁶⁰ For more on the broader system of labour migration, see das Neves, ‘Economy, Society, and Labour Migration’, pp. 243–53.

⁶¹ FGDB, Cx 687, Curator of Native Affairs to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 67/B/7, 24 April 1953.

⁶² See, for example, the many cases in FGDB, Cx 687 of individuals shipped to São Tomé upon their expulsion from Rhodesia, usually for robbery, theft, burglary, or ‘offences against decency’.

⁶³ For more on migrant workers from Portuguese colonies in the mines of southwestern Rhodesia, see T. Ranger, ‘Tales of the Wild West: Gold-Diggers and Rustlers in South-West Zimbabwe, 1898–1940’, South African Historical Journal, 28, 1 (May 1993), pp. 40–62.

⁶⁴ FGDB, Cx 683, Expulsion Order for Ngalasa.

⁶⁵ FGDB, Cx 683, Guia for Ngalasa.

⁶⁶ FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Nacumula, 64/B/17, 3 August 1949.

⁶⁷ FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Xavier Calixe, 75/B/17, 22 August 1949.

⁶⁸ FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Murunguja, 100/B/17, 29 September 1949.

⁶⁹ FGDB, Cx 685, Proceedings against Sixpence or Coutinho, 83/B/17, 3 September 1949. For an insightful case study of the dynamics of cross-border migration and colonial control in Mozambique from an earlier era, see E. Allina-Pisano, ‘Borderlands, Boundaries, and the Contours of Colonial Rule: African Labor in Manica District, 1904–1908’, International Journal of African Historical Studies, 36, 1 (2003), pp. 59–82.

⁷⁰ For a more theoretically informed approach towards territoriality and colonial rule, see C. Gray, ‘L'enfermement de l'espace: Territoriality and Colonial Enclosure in Southern Gabon’, in Bernault (ed.), A History of Prison and Confinement in Africa, pp. 165–90.

⁷¹ FGDB, Cx 132, Intendant of Tete to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 1537/A/17, 21 June 1950.

⁷² FGDB, Cx 132, Intendant of Tete to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 1537/A/17, 21 June 1950

⁷³ FGDB, Cx 132, Intendant of Tete to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 1537/A/17, 21 June 1950

⁷⁴ For another comparison of internal cross-boundary migration with international trans-border migration, see Tornimbeni and Newitt, ‘Transnational Networks and Internal Boundaries’.

⁷⁵ For examples, see FCC, Cx 209, Provincial Director of Civil Administration, Informação, 3/1/1956, 26 April 1956; FCC, Cx 209, Beira Native Curator, Circular, 2468/B/7, 23 May 1956.

⁷⁶ See, for example, FGDB, Cx 686, Beira Council to Government of Manica and Sofala, 1011/B/17/2, 10 March 1952, or FGDB, Cx 686, Governor of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 4840/B/17, 21 June 1950. See also Penvenne, African Workers and Colonial Racism, p. 115.

⁷⁷ FGDB, Cx 686, Administrator of Chimoio to Provincial Government, 2181/B/17, 8 July 1950.

⁷⁸ For a broader account of these raids, see Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, p. 74.

⁷⁹ FGDB, Cx 686, RCNI to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 47/B/17/2, 30 March 1953.

⁸⁰ FGDB, Cx 686, RCNI to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 30 March 1953, 47/B/17/2; FGDB, Cx 686, Government of Manica and Sofala to Administrator of Beira, 2412/B/17, 1 April 1953.

⁸¹ FGDB, Cx 686, Telegraph from Beira Council to RCNI, 6 May 1953. In 1953, the rules were changed to allow women and children to accompany male convicts; see FGDB, Cx 686, RCNI to Administration of Mossurize, 3925/B/17, 23 May 1953.

⁸² FGDB, Cx 684, Administrator of Beira to Provincial Director of Civil Administration, 1569/B/17, 29 September 1948.

⁸³ FGDB, Cx 686, Government of Manica and Sofala to RCNI, 4840/B/17, 21 June 1950.

⁸⁴ FGDB, Cx 688, RCNI to Governor of Manica and Sofala, 1423/B/17/2, 20 March 1956. This was a considerable understatement, as the forced labourers from Angola and Mozambique (known in São Tomé as serviçais) had joined the Portuguese in their brutal repression of the São Tomé planter class when the latter protested against increasingly harsh colonial rule. See Siebert, Clients, Comrades and Cousins, pp. 65–88.

⁸⁵ For individual examples, see FCC, Cx 209.

⁸⁶ Nascimento, Desterro e contrato, p. 76.