‘No less a foe than Satan himself’: The Devil, Transition and Moral Panic in White South Africa, 1989–1993

Abstract

There are moments in history where the imagined threat of satanism and the devil have been engendered by, and exacerbated, widespread social anxiety. This article looks at particular moments in which the ‘satanic peril’ emerged in the white South African imagination as moments of moral panic during which social boundaries were sharpened, patrolled, disputed, and renegotiated through public debate. Between 1989 and 1993, white politicians warned against the unholy trinity of ‘drugs, satanism and communism’, while white newspapers reported rumours of midnight orgies and the ritual consumption of baby flesh by secret satanic covens. From the bizarre to the macabre, the message became one of societal decay and a vulnerable youth. Moral panics betray a host of anxieties in the society, or segment of a society, in which they erupt. This article argues that the moral panic between 1989 and 1993, and the emergence of the ‘satanic peril’, betrays contextually specific anxieties surrounding the loss of power and shifts in class and cultural solidarity as white South Africa's social and geographic borders were transformed. We seek to elucidate the cultural changes in white South Africa during this period by illuminating the social, temporal and geographic boundaries that were disputed and renegotiated through the heightened and shifting discourse on satanism. With context provided by the satanic panics of the late 1970s in South Africa, and the transnational satanism scare of the 1980s, this article concentrates on South Africa's most virulent satanic panic, which occurred between 1989 and 1993. As this article shows, while the decade of the 1980s was marked by successive states of emergency and the deterioration of the edifice of apartheid, it began and ended with widespread alarm that Satan was making a bid for the control of white South Africa.

Notes

^*This article is drawn from Danielle Dunbar, ‘The Devil's Children: Volk, Devils and Moral Panics in White South Africa, 1976–1993’ (MA thesis, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, 2012), supervised by Sandra Swart at Stellenbosch University. An early draft of this article was presented at the 23^rd Biennial Conference of the Southern African Historical Society, 27–29 June 2011, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We would like to thank the anonymous referees, as well as the research group ‘History Friday Mornings’, at Stellenbosch University, for sharing thoughts about this project.

¹ ‘Knowing our Children’, Diamond Fields Advertiser, 23 August 1989, p. 6. The ‘Wit Wolwe’ was a white, violent right-wing group that arose in the 1970s. See D. Welsh and J.E. Spence, Ending Apartheid (London, Pearson Education Limited, 2011), p. 53.

² ‘The Backward Theory of Rock Music's “Satanic Verses”’, The Daily Mail, 21 June 1990, p. 8.

³ Quoted in D. Welsh, The Rise and Fall of Apartheid (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2009), p. 344.

⁴ The terms ‘verkramp’ (conservative) and ‘verlig’ (enlightened) were coined by Wimpie de Klerk in 1969 in reference to the different camps within white Afrikaner politics regarding the relationship between white power and the state. See J. van Rooyen, Hard Right: The New White Power in South Africa (London, I.B. Tauris, 1994), p. 17. Also see P. Waldmeir, Anatomy of a Miracle: The End of Apartheid and the Birth of the New South Africa (London, Penguin, 1998), p. 109 and H. Giliomee, The Afrikaners: Biography of a People (Cape Town, Tafelberg, 2009), p. 629.

⁵ T. Ohlson, S.J. Steadman and R. Davies, The New Is Not Yet Born: Conflict Resolution in Southern Africa (Washington DC, The Brooking's Institution, 1994), p. 2. In 1989, some 1,403 people were killed in political action. This figure rose to 3,699 in 1990, 2,760 in 1991, and 3,794 in 1993. J. Barber, South Africa in the Twentieth Century (Oxford, Blackwell Publishers, 1999), pp. 288 and 301.

⁶ ‘Satanism Goes on Rampage’, The Star, 20 April 1991.

⁷ ‘Cult Targets Schoolkids’, Weekend Argus, 23 May 1990, p. 15.

⁸ ‘Kinders Dalk Vermis deur Satanisme’, Oosterlig, 27 July 1989, p. 1; ‘Sataniste Lok Jonges’, Beeld, 29 July 1989, p. 4; ‘Cops Lift Veil on Satanism in PE’, Weekend Post, 5 August 1989, p. 1; ‘Tiener in Greep van Satanisme’, Oosterlig, 7 August 1989, p. 1; ‘Satanism in City’, Diamond Fields Advertiser, 21 August 1989, p. 2 and ‘Many PE Kids in Satanism’, Evening Post, 22 May 1990, p. 1.

⁹ ‘“In Most Sects it's the Rule to Sacrifice Humans”’, Sunday Tribune, 10 June 1990, p. 2. Also see ‘Child and Animal Killings Alleged in Bizarre Rituals’, Weekend Argus, 19 May 1989, p. 15; ‘Devil Cult: Shock Report on City’, The Cape Times, 19 May 1990, p. 1; ‘PE Satanist: “I Ate Human Flesh”’, Evening Post, 21 May 1990, p. 1 and ‘Move to Probe Satanism is Welcome Step’, Evening Post, 14 June 1990, p. 2.

¹⁰ See, for example: ‘Devil Cult: Shock Report on City Satanism’, The Cape Times, 19 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Child and Animal Killings Alleged in Bizarre Rituals’, Weekend Argus, 19 May 1990, p. 15; ‘Durban a Centre of Satanism’, The Daily News, 12 May 1990, p. 15; ‘The Dark Secrets of a Large House…’, Weekend Argus, 19 May 1990, p. 15; ‘All-black House Reveals Secrets of Satanism’, The Sunday Star, 20 May 1990, p. 13; ‘Satanisme in O-Kaap: Die Bewyse’, Oosterlig, 21 July 1989, p. 1; ‘Oudtshoorn Skole het Satan-selle – Leraar’, Die Burger, 24 July 1990, p. 2; ‘Vlaag van Satanisme Teister Skole’, Die Volksblad, 24 July 1990, p. 1 and ‘“Satanisme” Skok Karoodorp’, Die Burger, 25 July 1990, p. 4. Also see J. & H. Gardiner, Satanism: The Seduction of South Africa's Youth (Port Elizabeth, Lion Life, 1990), p. 29.

¹¹ See, for example, ‘Fears of Satanism Keep Children Away from School’, The Star, 1 May 1991, p. 5 and ‘Satanism Goes on Rampage’, The Star, 20 April 1991. According to the South African Statistics Service, divorce rates in South Africa's white population showed a steady increase from the 1970s with an estimated 10,730 divorces in 1975, 16,543 divorces in 1980, 17,035 divorces in 1985, and 20,031 divorces in 1990. See Central Statistical Service, Bulletin of Statistics, 15, 1 (March 1981), 1.3; Central Statistical Service, Bulletin of Statistics, 19, 4 (December 1985), 1.4; Central Statistical Service, Bulletin of Statistics, 22, 4 (December 1988), 1.3 and Central Statistical Service, Bulletin of Statistics, 31, 1 (March 1997), 1.2.

¹² ‘Satanic Worship Feared to be Increasing’, Pretoria News, 14 August 1989, p. 4.

¹³ An East London based priest quoted in ‘Satanism Evident in EL House’, Daily Dispatch, 10 August 1989, p. 1. Also see ‘East London said to be Satanist Headquarters’, Eastern Province Herald, 10 May 1990, p. 6 and ‘Satanisme in O-Kaap: Die Bewyse’, Oosterlig, 31 July 1989, p. 1.

¹⁴ See, for example, ‘Landwye Histerie by Skole oor Satanisme’, Die Burger, 1 May 1991, p. 1 and ‘Satanic Secret of the Birthday Bus’, Weekly Mail, 3–9 May 1991, p. 5.

¹⁵ K. Jonker, Satanism Exposed (Pretoria, Sigma Press, 1992), p. 12. Jonker presents this rumour as fact, but supplies no verifiable evidence. DiFonzo and Bordia have defined rumour as ‘unverified and instrumentally relevant information statements in circulation that arise in contexts of ambiguity, danger or potential threat, and that function to help people make sense of and manage risk’. N. DiFonzo and P. Bordia, ‘Rumour, Gossip and Urban Legends’, Diogenes, 213 (2007), pp. 19–20.

¹⁶ ‘Devil Disciple Told to Kill Son’, The Sunday Star, 20 May 1990, p. 13 and ‘PE Satanist: I Ate Human Flesh’, Evening Post, 21 May 1990, p. 1.

¹⁷ ‘Devil Cult: Shock Report on City Satanism’, The Cape Times, 19 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Satanic Ring “Killed Babies”’, Sunday Times, 20 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Satanisme: “Wit Babas in Rituele Geoffer”’, Die Burger, 19 May 1990, p. 1; ‘“Babas Geoffer aan Satan”: Polisie oor Verhale van Gruwels’, Rapport, 20 May 1990, p. 2 and ‘Cop: How to Crack Satanism’, The Cape Times, 21 May 1990, p. 3.

¹⁸ ‘Child and Animal Killings Alleged in Bizarre Rituals’, Weekend Argus, 19 May 1990, p. 15; ‘Devil Worship is Countrywide, Claims Churchman’, The Citizen, 22 May 1990, p. 15; ‘Satanic Ring “Killed Babies”’, Sunday Times, 20 May 1990, p. 1 and Gardiner and Gardiner, Satanism, pp. 30–31.

¹⁹ Gardiner and Gardiner, Satanism, p. 27.

²⁰ L. Els and K. Jonker, Satanism in South Africa (Pretoria, Amabhuku Publications, 2000), p. 11.

²¹ See, for example, ‘Church Cautious on Satanism Reports’, The Star, 22 May 1990, p. 13; ‘Police Dismiss Talk of Satanism’, The Natal Witness, 9 August 1990, p. 3; ‘Police Probe Satanism’, The Cape Times, 22 August 1990, p. 3 and ‘Police Can't Confirm “Satanist Grave Sites” Report’, The Star, 22 August 1990, p. 3.

²² See, for example, ‘Devil Cult: Shock Report on City Satanism’, The Cape Times, 19 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Devil Disciple Told to Kill Son’, The Sunday Star, 20 May 1990, p. 3; ‘Satanic Ring “Killed Babies”’, Sunday Times, 20 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Satanism: A Reality To Be Confronted’, Evening Post, 22 May 1990, p. 2; ‘“In Most Sects It's The Rule To Sacrifice Humans”’, Sunday Tribune, 10 June 1990, p. 2; ‘Move To Probe Satanism Is Welcome Step’, Evening Post, 14 June 1990, p. 2 and ‘Satanists Meeting City’, Diamond Fields Advertiser, 27 August 1990, p. 1.

²³ Leonard Gray – a preacher from the Church of Christ in East London – quoted in ‘Satanism: A Reality’, Daily Dispatch, 19 April 1991, p. 4.

²⁴ ‘Satanism: Appalling Claims’, Eastern Province Herald, 21 May 1990, p. 10.

²⁵ ‘Teens a Target for Netherworld’, Weekend Argus, 27 September 1992, p. 6.

²⁶ ‘Our Land is an Altered State’, The Star, 7 October 1989, p. 10.

²⁷ Quoted in Ohlson, Stedman and Davies, The New Is Not Yet Born, p. 1. Also see, S. Jones, Antonio Gramsci (New York, Routledge, 2006), pp. 99–101.

²⁸ A number of these issues were taken up by the Moral Standards Action movement in South Africa. See, for example, ‘And the Censors Behind the Scenes’, Sunday Tribune, 1 January 1978, p. 13; ‘SABC ‘Porn’ Alarms Moral Action Women’, The Natal Mercury, 22 February 1978; ‘PE is S Africa's City of Sin, Says Morals “Action” Man’, Evening Post, 14 May 1980, p. 1 and ‘Anti-Porn Pushers as SABC–AMS Pamphlets in the Foyer Attack Blue Movies, Living in Sin and All Things Decadent’, Sunday Express, 20 September 1981, p. 20. Also see: ‘Skoolmeisies Dra “Satanisvlegsel”’, Beeld, 14 May 1984, p. 3; ‘“Satansvlegsels” in OVS Verbode’, Die Volksblad, 14 May 1984, p. 1 and ‘Barcodes Seen as Thin Edge of the Wedge’, Eastern Province Herald, 29 April 1986, p. 11.

³⁰ S. Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of the Mods and Rockers (London, St Martin's Press, 1972), p. 9.

²⁹ For discussions of moral panic analysis, see K. Thompson, Moral Panics (London, Routledge, 1998); E. Goode and N. Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics: The Social Construction of Deviance (Oxford, Blackwell Publishers, 1994); C. Critcher, Moral Panics and the Media (Buckingham, Open University Press, 2003); P. Jenkins, Intimate Enemies: Moral Panics in Contemporary Great Britain (New York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1992); D. Garland, ‘On the Concept of Moral Panic’, Crime Media Culture, 4, 1 (2008), pp. 9–30; A. Hunt, ‘“Moral Panic” and Moral Language in the Media’, The British Journal of Sociology, 48, 4 (1997), pp. 629–48; D.L. Altheide, ‘Moral Panic: From Sociological Concept to Public Discourse’, Crime Media Culture, 5, 1 (2009), pp. 79–99; S.P. Hier, ‘Thinking Beyond Moral Panic: Risk, Responsibility, and the Politics of Moralization’, Theoretical Criminology, 12, 2 (2008), pp. 173–90; B.E. Denham, ‘Folk Devils, News Icons and the Construction of Moral Panics’, Journalism Studies, 9, 6 (2008), pp. 945–61 and A. McRobbie and S.L. Thornton, ‘Rethinking “Moral Panic” for Multi-Mediated Social Worlds’, The British Journal of Sociology, 46, 4 (1995), pp. 559–74. Also see Bourke's discussion on inserting emotion into historical writing, and her argument for an ‘aesthesiological’ approach. J. Bourke, ‘Fear and Anxiety: Writing about Emotion in Modern History’, History Workshop Journal, 55 (2003), pp. 111–13.

³¹ Thompson, Moral Panics, p. 4. As Goode and Ben-Yehuda have noted ‘[a]ll moral panics, by their very nature, identify, denounce, and attempt to root out folk devils’. Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, p. 29. It is important to note that moral panics often centre on retrospectively ‘trivial’ matters, but have also arisen around problems like child abuse and paedophilia. These fears are not necessarily irrational or irrelevant, rather the discourse and response during a period of moral panic are perceptibly distorted and disproportionate.

³² Sociologist Howard Becker coined the term ‘moral entrepreneur’ in describing those individuals or groups who seek to provide a society of certain moral codes or rules. Becker elaborated the term ‘moral entrepreneur’ in a case study of legislation regarding marijuana in America in Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963).

³³ Noted in the third edition of Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics (2004) and quoted in Hier, ‘Thinking Beyond Moral Panic’, p. 176.

³⁴ See, for example, P. Kaarsholm, ‘Moral Panic and Cultural Mobilization: Responses to Transition, Crime and HIV/AIDS in KwaZulu-Natal’, Development and Change, 36, 1 (2005), pp. 133–56; G. Petros, C.O. Arhihenbuwa, C. Simbayi, S. Ramlagan and B. Brown, ‘HIV/AIDS and “Othering” in South Africa: The Blame Goes On’, Culture, Health and Sexuality, 8, 1 (2006), pp. 67–77; D. Posel, ‘The Scandal of Manhood: “Baby Rape” and the Politicization of Sexual Violence in Post-Apartheid South Africa’, Culture, Health and Sexuality, 7, 3 (2005), pp. 239–52; L. Vincent, ‘Moral Panic and the Politics of Populism’, Representations, 45, 2 (2009), pp. 213 – 221; N. Dolby, ‘Popular Culture and Public Space in Africa: The Possibility of Cultural Citizenship’, African Studies Review, 49, 3 (2006), pp. 31–47 and C. Gould, ‘Moral Panic, Human Trafficking and the 2010 Soccer World Cup’, Agenda, 24, 85 (2010), pp. 31–44.

³⁵ H. Englund, Prisoners of Freedom: Human Rights and the African Poor (Los Angeles, University of California Press, 2006) and H. Englund, ‘Witchcraft and the Limits of Mass Mediation in Malawi’, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 13, 2 (2007), pp. 295–311

³⁶ Van Onselen discusses moral panics implicitly in his work on the ‘kitchen boy’ scares, and explicitly by Etherington and Cornwell. See C. Van Onselen, New Babylon, New Nineveh: Everyday Life on the Witwatersrand 1886–1914 (Johannesburg, Jonathan Ball Publishers, 2001); N. Etherington, ‘Natal's Black Rape Scare of the 1870s’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 1 (1998), pp. 36–53 and G. Cornwell, ‘George Webb Hardy's “The Black Peril” and the Social Meaning of Black Peril’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 22, 3 (1996), pp. 441–53. Also see S. Swart, ‘The “Five Shilling Rebellion”: Rural White Male Anxiety and the 1914 Boer Rebellion’, South African Historical Journal, 56, 1 (2006), pp. 88–102.

³⁷ I. Niehaus, ‘Maternal Incest and Moral Panic: Envisioning Futures Without Fathers in the South African Lowveld’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 36, 4 (2010), pp. 833–49.

³⁸ The racial lines of the moral panic are explored further at a later stage in this paper. The ‘satanic peril’ was articulated by English and Afrikaans newspapers and moral entrepreneurs and presented Satanism as a threat to all white society. It was only in the condemnation of the ‘New Age’, explored briefly in this paper, that there was a strong discrepancy between English and Afrikaans interests: warnings of the ‘New Age’ threat found predominantly in Afrikaans newspapers, magazines and churches.

³⁹ See, for example, ‘Animal Cruelty “Rife in SADF Camps”’, Weekend Argus, 7 May 1988, p. 1, and Gardiner and Gardiner, Satanism, p. 87.

⁴⁰ B. Bowman, ‘Children, Pathology and Politics: A Genealogy of the Paedophile in South Africa Between 1944 and 2004’, South African Journal of Psychology, 40, 4 (2010), pp. 443–64.

⁴¹ Such rumour panics included the widespread alarm among black South Africans that disgruntled white farmers had injected all citrus fruit with HIV/AIDS. See A. Goldstuck, Ink in the Porridge: Urban Legends of the South African Elections (London, Penguin, 1994).

⁴² See for example D. Kohnert, ‘Witchcraft and Transnational Social Spaces: Witchcraft Violence, Reconciliation and Development in South Africa's Transition Process’, Journal of Modern African Studies, 41, 2 (2003), pp. 217–45; I. Niehaus, Witchcraft, Power and Politics: Exploring the Occult in the South African Lowveld (Cape Town, David Philip Publishers, 2001) and A. Ashforth, Witchcraft, Violence, and Democracy in South Africa (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2005).

⁴³ Quoted in Barber, South Africa in the Twentieth Century, p. 274.

⁴⁴ B.J. Liebenberg and S.B. Spies (eds), South Africa in the 20^th Century (Pretoria, J.L. van Schaik Academic Publishers, 1993), pp. 525–26; Welsh, The Rise and Fall of Apartheid, p. 244 and Giliomee, The Afrikaners, p. 615.

⁴⁵ D. O'Meara, Forty Lost Years: The Apartheid State and Politics of the National Party, 1948–1994 (Johannesburg, Raven Press, 1996), p. 377; Giliomee, The Afrikaners, pp. 620–21 and Welsh, The Rise and Fall of Apartheid, p. 204.

⁴⁶ O'Meara, Forty Lost Years, p. 380.

⁴⁷ ‘NGK Shock on SA Devil Worship: 40 000 in Satan Cult’, Weekend Argus, 14 October 1978, p. 1; ‘The Satanists – NGK says 40 000 Worship the Devil’, Sunday Tribune, 15 October 1978, p. 1; ‘Studente, Skoliere se Optrede Wek Sorg’, Die Vaderland, 17 October 1978, p. 3; ‘Dwelmmiddels Lok Satanslede’, Die Volksblad, 21 October 1978, p. 5 and ‘Are You Rocking to the Devil's Beat?’, Sunday Tribune, 22 October 1978, p. 110.

⁴⁸ The state had concluded in 1976 that no evidence had been found to corroborate assertions that Satanism was becoming organised or widespread. Noted in ‘Kerk, Staat Verskil Oor Satanisme’, Die Burger, 13 August 1979, p. 5; ‘SA Duiwel Aanbidding Gespaar?’, Die Burger, 18 August 1979, p. 8 and ‘Dis Vet Op Satan Se Vuur’, Rapport, 19 August 1979, p. 15.

⁴⁹ See, for example: ‘NGK Shock on SA Devil Worship: 40 000 in Satan Cult’, Weekend Argus, 14 October 1978, p. 1; ‘Matie Man's Brush with Devil Worship: “100 000 follow Satan in SA”’, Weekend Argus, 13 October 1979, p. 11; ‘Bloody Rites Mark Satanic Rise’, Weekend Post, 8 March 1980, p. 1; ‘Exposed – The Sex Orgies of Satan Cults’, Sunday Times, 16 November 1980, p. 23; ‘Satanism in South Africa Investigated’, The Friend, 6 March 1982, p. 1 and ‘Satan Rock, Pop Music – “Tool of the Devil”’, Weekend Argus, 20 November 1982, p. 22.

⁵⁰ ‘Satanist Cults in City Investigated’, Pretoria News, 5 March 1982, p. 1; ‘Another Church Officer Gets a Death Threat from Satanists’, Sunday Express, 14 March 1982, p. 5; ‘The Satanists: NGK says 40 000 Worship the Devil’, Sunday Tribune, 15 October 1978, p. 1; ‘Satanisme in SA: Skok Feite – Karate, Joga Ook Betrek’, Die Vaderland, 21 October 1978, p. 1 and ‘Ondersoek na Kung-Fu, Karate Gevra’, Die Volksblad, 21 October 1978, p. 5.

⁵¹ ‘Studente, Skoliere Se Optrede Wek Sorg’, Die Vaderland, 17 October 1978, p. 3.

⁵² ‘“Wit Satan Verlei Jeug tot Duiwelswerk”’, Die Burger, 4 August 1981, p. 6.

⁵³ See for example ‘Pop-musiek Se Invloed “Destruktief”’, Die Volksblad, 21 August 1986, p. 2; ‘Beware of “Satanic” Pop Music, NGK Synod Told’, The Argus, 17 October 1986, p. 1; ‘Church Worried About Satan-Worship’, The Star, 17 October 1986, p. 11 and ‘Synod Slams Exponents of “Satanistic Music”’, The Citizen, 17 October 1986, p. 11. Also see ‘Do Girls Still Say “No”?’, The Citizen, 17 November 1980, p. 13; ‘This Man is Watching You’, Sunday Express, 9 May 1982, p. 5 and ‘Pop Musiek “Soms Met Satanisme Deurspek”’, Die Burger, 16 October 1986, p. 4.

⁵⁴ ‘Kommer Oor Video's’, Die Burger, 18 June 1987, p. 6; ‘Censorship to “Curb Violence”’, Business Day, 18 June 1987, p. 4; ‘Music Satanism “An Old Wives’ Tale”’, The Cape Times, 19 June 1987, p. 15. For the State response to issues pertaining to homosexuality in South Africa, see R. Sinclair, ‘The Official Treatment of White, South African, Homosexual Men and the Consequent Reaction of Gay Liberation from the 1960s to 2000’ (DLitt and Phil. thesis, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg, 2004).

⁵⁵ The survey was undertaken by the Department of Education and Training. See ‘Sex: What SA's Youth Thinks’, YOU Magazine, 11 April 1991, pp. 96–97 and Administration, House of Assembly, Care for Our Youth 2000 (Pretoria, Department of Education and Culture, c.1990).

⁵⁶ Quoted in ‘Churchmen Reject “New Age” Gospel’, The Citizen, 7 February 1991, p. 13.

⁵⁷ R. Lippert, ‘The Construction of Satanism as a Social Problem in Canada’, The Canadian Journal of Sociology, 15, 4 (1990), pp. 417–439; T. Hjelm, H. Bogdan, A. Dyrendal and J.A. Petersen, ‘Nordic Satanism and Satanism Scares: The Dark Side of the Secular Welfare State’, Social Compass, 56, 4 (2009), pp. 235–371; J. Pratt, ‘The Abusive Society: A Review Essay’, Australian & New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 35, 3 (2002), p. 386; J. La Fontaine, ‘Satanism and Satanic Mythology’, in B. Ankarloo and S. Clark (eds), The Athlone History of Witchcraft and Magic in Europe. Volume 6: The Twentieth Century (London, The Athlone Press, 1999), pp. 130–31 and J.T. Richardson, J. Reichert and V. Lykes, ‘Satanism in America: An Update’, Social Compass, 56, 4 (2009), p. 553.

⁵⁸ P. Stevens, ‘The Demonology of Satanism: An Anthropological View’, in J.T. Richards, J. Best and D.G. Bromley (eds), The Satanism Scare (New York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1991), p. 21.

⁵⁹ D. Nathan, ‘Satanism and Child Molestation: Constructing the Ritual Abuse Scare’, in Richardson, Best and Bromley (eds), The Satanism Scare, pp. 9–33.

⁶⁰ Noted in D.G. Bromley, ‘Satanism: The New Cult Scare’, in Richardson, Best and Bromley (eds), The Satanism Scare, p. 60 and J.S. Victor, Satanic Panic: The Creation of a Contemporary Legend (Illinois, Open Court Publishing Company, 1993), p. 16.

For details and links regarding Ritual Abuse trials, verdicts and testimonies see the online resource: Victims of the State, Child Abuse. http://www.victimsofthestate.org/CC/CH.htm#B7) (available 2 September 2011).

⁶¹ ‘Proof Lacking for Ritual Abuse by Satanists’, The New York Times, 31 October 1994.

⁶² La Fontaine, ‘Satanism and Satanic Mythology’, p. 130. D. Nathan and M. Snedeker dedicated their book, Satan's Silence: Ritual Abuse and the Making of a Modern American Witch Hunt (Lincoln, Author's Choice Press, 1995 & 2001), to these people whom they believe innocent of the charges. Also see M. DeYoung, ‘Two Decades After McMartin: A Follow-up of 22 Convicted Day Care Employees’, Journal of Sociology and Welfare, 34, 4 (2009), pp. 9–33.

⁶³ ‘Psychiatrists Admit Being “Confounded” by Satanist’, The Star, 3 July 1986, p. 23.

⁶⁴ From ‘Devil Cult: Shock Report on City Satanism’, The Cape Times, 19 May 1990, p. 1.

⁶⁵ ‘Devil Worship in Ladysmith’, The Natal Mercury, 15 February 1989, p. 1 and ‘SADF Men Sent Home After Satanism Probe’, The Cape Times, 15 February 1989, p. 1.

⁶⁶ See, for example ‘Saved from Satanism: Woman Tells of Her Return to the Real World’, Daily Dispatch, 19 April 1989, p. 3; ‘Leraar Bang Hulle Maak Hom Dood’, Rapport, 21 May 1989, p. 10; ‘Ons Ervarings Met Duiwelaanbidders’, Rapport, 21 May 1989, p. 10; ‘Ek Het My Eie Bloed Gedrink’, Die Transvaler, 15 June 1990, p. 3; ‘Churches to Act on Satan Worship Claims’, The Leader, 22 June 1990, p. 1; ‘“Rasend Gelukkig” in Graf Vol Bene’, Huisgenoot, 14 November 1991, p. 8; ‘Meet the Devil's Disciple’, The Star, 26 September 1992, p. 3; ‘Oud-Satanis Vertel van Mensoffers’, Die Burger, 18 September 1992, p. 3 and ‘Ek Was in Geheim SA se Hoof Heks’, Huisgenoot, 23 April 1993, p. 10.

⁶⁷ ‘News of Satanists Pours into Police Files’, Weekend Post, 12 August 1989, p. 8 and ‘Satanic Worship in SA Feared to be Increasing’, Pretoria News, 14 August 1989, p. 4.

⁶⁸ See, for example: ‘Kinders Dalk Vermis Deur Satanisme’, Oosterlig, 27 July 1989, p. 1; ‘Is Gonubie SA's Satanist Headquarters?’, Weekend Post, 29 July 1989, p. 1; ‘Sataniste Lok Jonges: ‘Bewyse’ Dat Hul Met Grafte Lol’, Beeld, 29 July 1989, p. 4; ‘Satanisme in O-Kaap: die Bewyse’, Oosterlig, 21 July 1989, p. 1; ‘Cops Lift Veil on Satanism in PE’, Weekend Post, 5 August 1989, p. 1 and ‘Satan Cult Not To Be Scoffed At, Say Clergy’, Eastern Province Herald, 7 August 1989, p. 3.

⁶⁹ ‘Child and Animal Killings Alleged in Bizarre Rituals’, Weekend Argus, 19 May 1990, p. 15. See, for example, ‘Talk on Satanism’, Daily Dispatch, 19 May 1992, p. 7; ‘Gays Noem Hulself “Seuns Van Satan”’, Die Transvaler, 22 September 1992; ‘Homoseksuele Sataniste Glo in Bfn Bedrywig’, Die Volksblad, 23 September 1992, p. 9. Also see N. Goldman and K. Jonker, Youth and Satanism Exposed (Port Elizabeth, Lion Life, 1990); Jonker, Satanism Exposed (1992) and Els and Jonker, Satanism in South Africa (2000).

⁷⁰ Quoted in, ‘New Agers No Bloodsuckers, Capt Solms’, The Cape Times, 13 August 1991, p. 6.

⁷¹ Made with reference to satanism in the United States as well as in South Africa. ‘It's the Crime of the ’90s–Police', Weekend Argus, 25 May 1990, p. 15.

⁷² Police captain Leonard Solms quoted in ‘Devil Cult: Shock Report on City Satanism’, The Cape Times, 19 May 1990, p. 1.

⁷³ Quoted in ‘Devil Disciple Told to Kill Son’, The Sunday Star, 20 May 1990, p. 13. Some ‘satanists’ did not remain anonymous but relished the media attention, although their tales did not admit to crimes of murder and rape. See, for example, ‘Lucifer Behoorlik die Duiwel In’, Rapport, 21 May 1989, p. 10; ‘Exorcism of a Satanist’, YOU, 3 October 1991, pp. 122–25; ‘Satanist's Confess: Blood Lust of the Devil's Children’, YOU, 14 November 1991, pp. 8–9 and 13.

⁷⁴ ‘Fighting Fire with Prayer’, Servamus, May 1991, pp. 18–19 and, similarly, ‘“Ouer Moet Waak Teen Leemte”’, Oosterlig, 21 March 1990, p. 5. A series of articles appeared in Servamus, the official magazine of the South African Police, including Die G(g)od Wat Jy Dien', Servamus, June 1991, pp. 13 and 29; ‘Roepstem Uit Die Hel…’, Servamus, July 1991, pp. 14–15; ‘So Offer Ek My Lewe…’, Servamus, August 1991, p. 46 and ‘Ontsnapping Uit Die Hel…’, Servamus, September 1991, pp. 52–54.

⁷⁵ See, for example, ‘Movement to Christ Stronger – Pastor’, Eastern Province Herald, 3 August 1989, p. 6; ‘Satan Worship: Focus Falls on Rock Music’, Weekend Post, 5 August 1989, p. 4; ‘Tiener in Greep van Satanisme’, Oosterlig, 7 August 1989, p. 1; ‘Kommer oor Kinders en Satanisme’, Die Transvaler, 18 August 1989, p. 2; ‘Demone het Haar Beheer, Vertel Meisie’, Oosterlig, 25 August 1989, p. 1; ‘Teenager Warns of Satanic Dangers’, Eastern Province Herald, 25 August 1989, p. 11; ‘Satanism in Schools Rife – Teenager’, Weekend Post, 26 August 1989, p. 9; and ‘Pastor's Horror Claim of Satanism in Natal’, The Daily News, 28 October 1989, p. 4.

⁷⁶ ‘Satan Worship: Focus Falls on Rock Music’, Weekend Post, 5 August 1989, p. 4. Also see Y. Hoeksma, ‘Sataniese era beplan vir SA’, Die Volksblad, 21 August 1990, p. 1 and ‘How to tell if your child is a satanist – Potential danger signs leave a tell-tale trail’, Weekend Post, 20 April 1991, p. 11.

⁷⁷ Such sentiments also expressed a wariness of English permissiveness and materialism, with reports noting that ‘yuppie’ school children were most involved. See, for example ‘“Sommige kinders meer ure voor TV as in die skool”’, Oosterlig, 30 August 1990, p. 3; ‘How to Tell if your Child is a Satanist’, Weekend Post, 20 April 1991, p. 11. Also see, for example, ‘“Glassy-glass” Hooks Two PE Schoolgirls to Satanism’, Eastern Province Herald, 7 August 1990, p. 3; ‘Satanism Evident in EL House’, Daily Dispatch, 10 August 1989, p. 1; and ‘Seun Beland in Hospital na Lesing oor Satanisme’, Tempo, 27 October 1989, p. 1.

⁷⁸ ‘New Age: Or is it as Old as Man?’, Cross Times, January 1990, p. 11. Also see, ‘Teachings of New Cult “are anti-Christian”’, The Sunday Star, 8 October 1989, p. 4.

⁷⁹ See, for example: ‘We Must Smite the Satanic Smurfs!’, Sunday Times, 10 September 1989, p. 7; ‘Die “New Age”-Beweging’, Die Kerkbode, 27 September 1989, p. 7; ‘Die “New Age” is Hier’, Die Kerkblad, 25 September 1991, p. 30; and ‘Steek New Age By Ons Skole Kop Uit?’, Die Kerkbode, 6 August 1993, p. 8.

⁸⁰ Quoted in ‘Expert Probe into “Evil” TV’, Daily Dispatch, 5 April 1989, p. 4. Also see J. Gardiner and H. Gardiner, How Safe is My Child? TV, Toys and the Occult in South Africa (Cape Town, Struikhof, 1991).

⁸¹ ‘The Rock ’n Reverse Dominee: Music Men Slam Claim of “Satanic” Backtrack', Sunday Times, 24 September 1989, p. 13.

⁸² ‘New Age: Or is it as Old as Man?’, Cross Times, January 1990, p. 11.

⁸³ ‘NGK Probes Sci-fi Group for “Dabbling in the Occult”’, Sunday Times, 17 September 1989, p. 4.

⁸⁴ ‘Cops Life Veil on Satanism in PE’, Weekend Post, 5 August 1989, p. 1; ‘“Glassy-glassy” Hooks Two PE Schoolgirls in Satanism’, Eastern Province Herald, 7 August 1989, p. 3; ‘News of Satanists Pours into Police Files’, Weekend Post, 12 August 1989, p. 8; ‘Satanism in Schools Rife – Teenager’, Weekend Post, 26 August 1989, p. 9; ‘“Signs” of Satanism Pinpointed’, Pretoria News, 13 June 1990, p. 1; ‘So Swig die Tieners Voor Satanisme’, Die Volksblad, 26 July 1990, p. 14 and ‘Kinders al Meer Betrokke by die Okkulte’, Die Transvaler, 10 December 1990, p. 7.

⁸⁵ See, for example: ‘Satanisme Het Sielkundige Gevolge’, Tempo, 7 March 1991, p. 5; Duiwel Verdryf Uit Kinderreekse', Die Burger, 11 September 1992, p. 1; ‘Satanisme: So Kan Jy Jou Kind Beskerm’, Die Burger, 16 September 1992, p. 7; ‘As Kinders Swart Dra’, Die Transvaler, 24 September 1992, p. 9; ‘New Age en Dracula op Skool Laat Hul Kla’, Beeld, 7 May 1993, p. 5; ‘Stephen King Novels “Satanic”’, The Cape Times, 4 June 1993; ‘Luister Krities Na Musiek Met Kort, Herhalende Tema’, Die Volksblad, 16 June 1993, p. 4; ‘Onderwysers Moet Bedag Wees Op Tekens Wat Op Satanisme By Kinders Dui’, Die Kerkbode, 11 June, 1993, p. 1 and ‘Leerlinge Ingelig Oor Satanisme’, Die Volksblad, 17 June 1992, p. 13.

⁸⁶ Gardiner and Gardiner, Satanism, pp. 113–114.

⁸⁷ Quoted in ‘Why Angry Clerics Hurled “Evil” Turtles into Oblivion’, Sunday Times, 23 December 1990, p. 5.

⁸⁸ ‘“Satan Se Skilpaaie” Hier Glad Nie Welkom’, Rapport, 11 November 1990.

⁸⁹ Quoted in ‘Why Angry Clerics Hurled “Evil” Turtles into Oblivion’.

⁹⁰ ‘Ninja Turtles To Go Up In Smoke’, The Citizen, 17 December 1990, p. 8; ‘“Bose” Speelgoed Sal Nou Begrawe Word’, Oosterlig, 19 December 1990, p. 2 and ‘Why Angry Clerics Hurled “Evil” Turtles into Oblivion’, Sunday Times, 23 December 1990, p. 5.

⁹¹ See, for example ‘Beware the “Satanistic” Pop Music, NGK Synod Told’, The Argus, 17 October 1986, p. 1 and ‘Satanic Music’, The South African Observer, May 1985, p. 12. In 1988, the Dutch Reformed Church undertook a commission (Kommissie vir Leer en Aktuele Sake) whose purview included the influence of the occult in South Africa, and once more the issue of popular music imbued with Eastern mysticism and Satanism came to the fore. ‘Duiwelaanbidding: Moenie op Loop Gaan – Cilliers’, Oosterlig, 14 February 1989, p. 4.

⁹² ‘“Voëlvry” Backwards Row for Court’, The Sunday Star, 8 October 1989, p. 4.

⁹³ ‘Misleidende “New Age Movement” Ook in SA Bedrywig’, Die Kerkbode, 7 July 1989, p. 6. Also see ‘Musieklike Ondermyning’, Die Afrikaner, 1 November 1989, p. 7.

⁹⁴ Quoted in ‘The Rock ’n Reverse Dominee: Music Men Slam Claim of ‘Satanic’ Backtrack', Sunday Times, 24 September 1989, p. 13.

⁹⁵ Some seventeen thousand people, mainly white Afrikaner youths, attended the twenty shows, ‘“Voëlvry” Backwards Row for Court’, p. 4.

⁹⁶ See, for example ‘Dominee in die Pekel oor Voëlvry’, Die Transvaler, 3 October 1989, p. 2; M. Waldner, ‘Sindoe nie lus vir ds. Jannie…se blik op Satan in die Boereblues’, Rapport, 22 October 1989, p. 1; ‘Sinode Luister na “yrvlëoV”’, Die Kerkbode, 27 October 1989, p. 4; ‘Record Firm Suing NGK Moderator’, The Citizen, 24 November 1989, p. 8 and P. Terreblanche, ‘Dominee Jannie en Shifty kyk na skikking’, Rapport, 15 July 1990, p. 5.

⁹⁷ ‘Dominee Skotvry’, Die Transvaler, 13 September 1991, p. 2; ‘Eis Teen Dr. Jannie Malan Teruggtrek’, Beeld, 14 September 1991, p. 2; P. Terreblanche, ‘Dr. Jannie en Shifty Gaan Skik’, Rapport, 15 September 1991, p. 8 and ‘Dr Malan Skotvry’, Die Kerkbode, 11 October 1991, p. 12.

⁹⁸ ‘Christene Wil Opruk Teen Vredespale’, Die Burger, 10 November 1989, p. 1; ‘Pole of Peace Must Go, Pray Christians’, The Cape Times, 13 November 1989, p. 3; ‘Honderde Protesteer Teen Vredespale’, Die Burger, 13 November 1989, p. 2; ‘“Demonic” Pole Protest’, The Citizen, 14 November 1989, p. 13; ‘Two Religious Groups have Showdown’, The Citizen, 14 November 1989, p. 3; ‘“Peace poles” not Sun Worship – Organiser’, The Citizen, 15 November 1989, p. 8; ‘Protes Teen Vredespale’, Die Kerkbode, 17 November 1989, p. 1 and ‘Protest Teen Vredespale’, Die Kerkblad, 6 December 1989, p. 12.

⁹⁹ ‘Peace or Protest: Church Reactions to New Age’, Cross Times, January 1990, p. 11. Also see ‘New Agers Gesels Met Demone’, Die Burger, 5 January 1990, p. 10.

¹⁰⁰ ‘New Age or is it as Old as Man?’, Cross Times, January 1990, p. 11.

¹⁰¹ ‘Tutu Decries Break Up of New Age Prayer Meetings’, The Cape Times, 20 November 1989, p. 5.

¹⁰² See ‘NP steun Satan-sekte: Betrokke in anti-Christelike aksie’, Die Afrikaner, 9 August 1989, p. 1. Also see ‘CP in row over “unholy” peace poles’, The Citizen, 20 August 1989, p. 10; ‘City Denies “Peace Pole” Allegations’, Pretoria News, 25 August 1989, p. 5 and ‘Nat-stadsraad skarrel oor “vredespaal”’, Die Patriot, 1 September 1989, p. 16.

¹⁰³ ‘Devil “Had Hold in Local Schools”’, Evening Post, 22 May 1990, p. 2.

¹⁰⁴ ‘Devil Cult: Shock Report on City Satanism’, The Cape Times, 19 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Satanisme: “Wit Babas in Rituele Geoffer”’, Die Burger, 19 May 1990, p. 1 and ‘“Signs of Satanism pinpointed”’, Pretoria News, 13 June 1990, p. 1.

¹⁰⁵ Adriaan Vlok quoted in, ‘Vlok Warns of Drugs, Satan and Communism’, The Natal Mercury, 2 July 1990, p. 3.

¹⁰⁶ Quoted in ‘How to Tell if Your Child is a Satanist’, Weekend Post, 20 April 1991, p. 11.

¹⁰⁷ Quoted in ‘The Younger the Better for the Devil’, The Star, 25 September 1992, p. 17.

¹⁰⁸ See, for example, ‘Detective and Pastor Join War on Satanism’, Eastern Province Herald, 20 April 1990, p. 5; ‘Satanism Shocker as Devil-worship Spreads’, Weekend Argus, 9 May 1990, p. 15; ‘Child and Animal Killings Alleged in Bizarre Rituals’, Weekend Argus, 19 May 1990, p. 15; ‘Devil Cult: Shock Report on City Satanism’, The Cape Times, 19 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Satanisme: “Wit Babas in Rituele Geoffer”’, Die Burger, 19 May 1990, p. 1; ‘“Babas Geoffer aan Satan”’, Rapport, 20 May 1990, p. 2; ‘Devil Disciple Told to Kill Son’, The Sunday Star, 20 May 1990, p. 13; A. Duggan, ‘Satanic Ring “Killed Babies”’, Sunday Times, 20 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Devil Worship is Countrywide, Claims Churchman’, The Citizen, 22 May 1990, p. 15 and ‘“Many PE kids in Satanism”’, Evening Post, 22 May 1990, p. 1.

¹⁰⁹ See, for example, ‘Devil Disciple Told to Kill Son’, The Sunday Star, 20 May 1990, p. 13; ‘PE Satanist: I Ate Human Flesh”, Evening Post, 21 May 1990, p. 1; ‘Satanism is reality to be confronted’, Evening Post, 22 May 1990, p. 2; C. le Grange, ‘Expert allays some Satanism fears’, The Star, 28 May 1990, p. 11; ‘The Quest for Satan’, Vrye Weekblad, 2 May 1991, p. 22 and ‘“In Most Sects it's the Rule to Sacrifice Humans”’, Sunday Tribune, 10 June 1990, p. 2. Similar claims are made in Gardiner and Gardiner, Satanism, p. 24.

¹¹⁰ ‘Satanism is a Reality to be Confronted’, Evening Post, 22 May 1990, p. 2.

¹¹¹ ‘Cult Targets Schoolkids’, Weekend Argus, 26 May 1990, p. 15.

¹¹² ‘Move to Probe Satanism is a Welcome Step’, Evening Post, 14 June 1990, p. 2.

¹¹³ ‘Top Cop to Probe Satanism’, The Cape Times, 13 June 1990, p. 1 and ‘Move to Probe Satanism is a Welcome Step’, Evening Post, 14 June 1990.

¹¹⁴ Transvaalse Afrikaanse Ouer vereniging (TAO). See ‘Kommer oor kinders en Satanisme’, Die Transvaler, 18 August 1989, p. 2 and S. Kemp, ‘Movement to Christ Stronger – Pastor’, Eastern Province Herald, 3 August 1989, p. 6.

¹¹⁵ ‘Devil Worship Probe in Schools’, Pretoria News, 16 August 1989, p. 1 and ‘Satanic Pupils Cured – Clase’, The Citizen, 15 August 1989, p. 4.

¹¹⁶ ‘Cape Town Worst City for Boys Abuse’, The Cape Times, 18 May 1990, p. 1.

¹¹⁷ ‘Satanism Prevalent, Warns Rina Venter’, Pretoria News, 31 October 1990, p. 3; ‘Venter Warns Youth on Permissiveness’, The Citizen, 31 October 1990, p. 11 and ‘Rina Venter Hits out at Drug Abuse and Satanism’, The Daily News, 31 October 1990, p. 3.

¹¹⁸ See Administration: House of Assembly, Care For Our Youth 2000 (Pretoria, Department of Education and Culture, c.1990); Administration: House of Assembly, Satanism and Occultism: Section 1 – Guide for Principals and Teachers (Pretoria, Transvaal Education Department, 1992); Administration: House of Assembly, Report of the Committee Investigating Satanism and Occultism in Children's Literature – Guidelines for Language Teachers (Pretoria, Transvaal Education Department, 1992).

¹¹⁹ ‘War on Satan: Expose it! Stop it! Christians Launch Crusade to Help Those Caught in Devil's Web’, Sunday Tribune, 10 June 1990, p. 2; ‘Satan Worship Shock’, The Leader, 15 June 1990, p. 1; ‘Rina Venter hits out at drug abuse and Satanism’, The Daily News, 31 October 1990, p. 3 and ‘Parent Help Group Goes Nationwide’, The Cape Times, 6 October 1990, p. 20.

¹²⁰ Quoted in: ‘Parent Help Group Goes Nationwide’, The Cape Times, 6 October 1990, p. 20.

¹²¹ ‘Police Dismiss Talk of Satanism’, The Natal Witness, 9 August 1990, p. 3; ‘Police Probe Satanism’, The Cape Times, 22 August 1990, p. 3 and ‘Police Can't Confirm “Satanist Grave Sites” Report’, The Star, 22 August 1990, 2.

¹²² ‘Satanism: Looking Beyond the Sensationalism and Hysteria’, The Natal Witness, 1 November 1990, p. 9.

¹²³ It was repeatedly claimed that Satanism was predominantly white problem. Kobus Jonker, Interview by author. Digital Recording, Pretoria, 26 August 2010. Also see, for example, ‘Satanists Meeting in City’, Diamond Fields Advertiser, 27 August 1990, p. 1; ‘Satanism Goes on Rampage’, The Star, 20 April 1991; ‘Devil Moon Glowing Over SA’, Weekend Argus, 16 July 1992, p. 6 and ‘City Teenagers “Know Satanists”’, The Cape Times, 2 December 1992, p. 1.

¹²⁴ ‘Satanists Look for Kids to Sacrifice’, City Press, 21 April 1991, p. 12.

¹²⁵ The precise demographics of the panic are unclear: Malabar and Gelvandale Primary Schools were situated in predominantly Indian and coloured areas, while Forest Hill and Bellville were predominantly white areas. With regards to the term ‘Coloured’: we accept that this term is controversial and has a history of its own. See for discussion, M. Adhikari, Not White Enough, Not Black Enough: Racial Identity in the South African Coloured Communities (Athens, Ohio University Press, 2005).

¹²⁶ Walpurgis Night (Walpurgisnacht), also known as the Witches Sabbath or the Satanic New Year, is believed to be a special night for witches on 30 April (the eve of May) on which they gather to dance, perform rituals, and have orgiastic sex.

¹²⁷ ‘Fears of Satanism Keep Children Away from School’, The Star, 1 May 1991, p. 5.

¹²⁸ ‘Satanic Secret of the Birthday Bus’, Weekly Mail, 3–9 May 1991, p. 5.

¹²⁹ ‘Landwye Histerie by Skole Oor Satanisme’, Die Burger, 1 May 1991, p. 1.

¹³⁰ ‘Satanism Panic Hits PE Schools’, Evening Post, 25 April 1991, p. 1; ‘Police to Step Up School Patrols on Satanic Occasion’, The Natal Witness, 30 April 1991, p. 1 and ‘Fears of Satanism keep children away from school’, The Star, 1 May 1991, p. 5.

¹³¹ ‘Landwye Histerie by Skole oor Satanisme’, Die Burger, 1 May 1991, p. 1.

¹³² ‘Satanism Panic Hits PE Schools’, Evening Post, 25 April 1991, p. 1; ‘Fears of Satanism Keep Children Away from school’, The Star, 1 May 1991, p. 5; ‘Landwye histerie by skole oor Satanisme’, Die Burger, 1 May 1991, p. 1 and ‘Satanic Secret of the Birthday Bus’, Weekly Mail, 3–9 May 1991, p. 5.

¹³³ ‘Satanic Secret of the Birthday Bus’, Weekly Mail, 3–9 May 1991, p. 5.

¹³⁴ ‘Gag on Second Satanism Expert’, Weekend Post, 22 June 1991, p. 2 and ‘Satanism: Gags and Secrecy’, Eastern Province Herald, 25 June 1991, p. 8.

¹³⁵ ‘Satanic Secret of the Birthday Bus’, Weekly Mail, 3–9 May 1991, p. 5.

¹³⁶ See ‘Landwye Histerie by Skole oor Satanisme’, Die Burger, 1 May 1991, p. 1; ‘Geen Gru-moord na Satansnag in Kaap Ontdek’, Die Burger, 2 May 1991, p. 1 and ‘Satanic Secret of the Birthday Bus’, Weekly Mail, 3–9 May 1991, p. 5.

¹³⁷ Quoted in ‘Gag on Second Satanism Expert’, Weekend Post, 22 June 1991, p. 2.

¹³⁸ Kobus Jonker, Interview by author, Digital Recording, Pretoria, 26 August 2010.

¹³⁹ ‘Police Arrest PE Satanists’, Evening Post, 31 October 1991, p. 1; ‘SAP Slaan Toe Op Sataniste in PE’, Oosterlig, 1 November 1991, p. 1; ‘Skulls, Black Angel Found in Swoop on Coven’, The Star, 1 November, p. 1 and ‘Biggest Satanism Haul Months After Gagging’, Eastern Province Herald, 1 November 1991, p. 2.

¹⁴⁰ ‘Satanism Movement's Initiation HQ Found’, Eastern Province Herald, 5 March 1992, p. 1; ‘Into the Cave of Satan: Coven Found Deep in Bowels of Van Staden's Bridge Near PE’, Weekend Argus, 7 March 1992, p. 6 and ‘Sataniste se Sel Gekry in OP-Brug’, Oosterlig, 5 March 1992, p. 1.

¹⁴¹ See, for example, ‘Talk on Satanism’, Daily Dispatch, 19 May 1993, p. 7; ‘The SAP's Newest Unit has Devil of a Job’, The Star, 30 October 1993, p. 10; ‘Police Unit to “Curb” the Occult’, The Cape Times, 30 October 1993, p. 4; ‘At War with Satan – Élite Unit to Combat the Forces of Evil’, Natal on Saturday, 30 October 1993, p. 6; ‘Satanisme Neem Toe in Tvl’, Beeld, 9 October 1993, p. 11 and ‘Sataniste se Donker Rituele in ’n Feestyd Vol Lig’, Die Volksblad, 29 December 1993, p. 7.

¹⁴² See, for example, ‘Surprise Withdrawal of “Glider Balls”’, The Daily News, 15 April 1992, p. 5; ‘Company Withdraws “Satanic” Glider Balls’, The Star, 15 April 1992; ‘Duiwel Verdryf Uit Kinderreekse’, Die Burger, 11 September 1992, p. 1; ‘Kazam! “Satanic” Kids TV Zapped’, Weekly Mail, 24 September 1992, p. 5 and ‘Yin, Yang and M-Net’, Weekly Mail, 24 September 1992, p. 16.

¹⁴³ ‘“Radically Alternative Religion” Gaining Ground in City’, The Natal Witness, 5 April 1993, p. 9; ‘Devil Moon Glowing Over SA’, Weekend Argus, 18 July 1992, p. 6; ‘Police Go after Satan in Tygerberg’, The Cape Times, 10 September 1992, p. 3; ‘“Satanisme” het Tonge Los in Tygerberg’, Die Burger, 16 September 1992, p. 1; ‘Kaapse Leraar Kry Baie Oproepe Oor Satanisme’, Die Burger, 17 September 1992, p. 7; ‘Satanist Covens in Northern Suburbs’, The Star, 18 September 1992, p. 1; ‘Devil Worship and Sex Orgies’, Weekend Argus, 19 September 1992, p. 7; ‘Breeding Babies for Human Sacrifice’, Weekend Argus, 19 September 1992, p. 7; ‘Sexy Little Number was a Little Devil’, The Sunday Star, 20 September 1992, p. 7; ‘School Warns on Satanism’, The Cape Times, 23 September 1992, p. 1; ‘Satanisme aan die Rand is Skrikwekkend Hoog’, Beeld, 24 September 1992, p. 4; ‘Dis Omdat Liggame Go Gou Ontwikkel‘, Die Transvaler, 14 September 1992, p. 9; ‘Onderwysers Moet Bedag Wees Op Tekend Wat Op Satanisme By Kinders Dui’, Die Kerkbode, 11 June 1993, p. 1 and ‘Leerlinge Ingelig Oor Satanisme’, Die Volksblad, 17 June 1993, p. 13.

¹⁴⁴ ‘Bekende TV-Aanbieder van Satanisme Beskuldig’, Beeld, 10 June 1993, p. 1; ‘Duo's Music Satanic, Says Dominee: Protest’, The Citizen, 10 June 1993, p. 10; ‘Dominee Ontken Dat Hy Popgroep van Satanisme Beskuldig Het’, Beeld, 11 June 1993, p. 1; ‘NG Kerk Swyg Nog Oor Ye-Ye-Debakel’, Beeld, 11 June 1992, p. 3; ‘NG Kerk Sal Beweringe Oor Ye-Ye Ondersoek’, Beeld, 15 June 1993, p. 4; ‘Daar's Niks Stouts in Ye-Ye Se Seksuele Energie’, Beeld, 16 June 1993, p. 9 and ‘Ye-Ye: Leraar Ontken Bewerings’, Die Kerkbode, 18 June 1993, p. 1.

¹⁴⁵ See, for example, ‘Police Dismiss Talk of Satanism’, The Natal Witness, 9 August 1990, p. 3; ‘Police Probe Satanism’, The Cape Times, 22 August 1990, p. 3; ‘Police Can't Confirm “Satanist Grave Sites” Report’, The Star, 22 August 1990, p. 2; ‘Gag on Second Satanism Expert’, Weekend Post, 22 June 1991, p. 2 and ‘Satanism: Gags and Secrecy’, Eastern Province Herald, 25 June 1991, p. 8.

¹⁴⁶ Interview with Kobus Jonker in P. Candido, ‘Satanism goes on Rampage’, The Star, 20 April 1991, p. 1.

¹⁴⁷ A. Goldstuck, ‘Satanic Vices are Hot Stuff for Media’, Weekly Mail, 1 October 1992, p. 11.

¹⁴⁸ See, for example, R. Wurmbrand, ‘Karl Marx's Ties with Satanism’, Diversie Publikasies, March 1989, p. 26; ‘1 Mei in Suid-Afrika’, Die Kerkblad, 21 February 1990, p. 12; ‘APK wil na FW oor Kommuniste’, Beeld, 24 September 1990, p. 4; ‘Teoloë Verskil met Slovo oor Sosialisme’, Die Burger, 8 October 1990, p. 9; ‘Meidag se Sleg sal Gewys Word’, Beeld, 10 January 1991, p. 5 and ‘Satanisme’, Die Afrikaner, 24 June 1992, p. 10.

¹⁴⁹ This was quite overt in the linking of Satanism and Communism. See for example, ‘Church Cautions on Satanism Reports’, The Star, 22 May 1990, p. 13; ‘Satanism: Appalling Claims’, Eastern Province Herald, 21 May 1990, p. 10; ‘Satanism is a Reality to be Confronted’, Evening Post, 22 May 1990, p. 2 and ‘Satanism in City’, Diamond Fields Advertiser, 26 August 1990, p. 6.

¹⁵⁰ ‘Vlok Warns of Drugs, Satan and Communism’, Natal Mercury, 2 July 1990, p. 3; ‘Vlok Pleads: Resist Drugs, Communism’, The Citizen, 30 June 1990, p. 10 and ‘SAP Probing Satanism to Fight It, Assures Vlok’, The Star, 2 July 1990, p. 6.

¹⁵¹ ‘Vlok Pleads: Resist Drugs, Communism’, The Citizen, 30 June 1990, p. 10.

¹⁵² Verkrampte means right-wing.

¹⁵³ Explicit allegations against the National Party arose; see, for example, ‘“Satan” Tract Queried’, The Citizen, 22 February 1992, p. 8.

¹⁵⁴ ‘Satanism is a Reality to be Confronted’, Evening Post, 22 May 1990, p. 2.

¹⁵⁵ ‘Satanism Statement Clarified’, The Cape Times, 8 May 1982, p. 2; ‘Predikant Maan oor Minister’, Die Vaderland, 10 May 1982, p. 3 and ‘Predikant Vra om Verskoning oor Satanskimp’, Die Transvaler, 10 May 1982, p. 4. Also see ‘“Satan” Tract Queried’, The Citizen, 22 February 1992, p. 8.

¹⁵⁶ See, for example, A. Seegers, The Military in the Making of Modern South Africa (London, Tauris Academic Studies, 1996) and P.H. Frankel, Pretoria's Praetorians: Civil-Military Relations in South Africa (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984).

¹⁵⁷ ‘Mishandele Diere: SAW Gaan Optree’, Die Burger, 21 August 1988, p. 11; ‘Animal Cruelty “Rife in SADF Camps”’, Weekend Argus, 7 May 1988, p. 1; ‘Devil Worship in Ladysmith’, The Natal Mercury, 15 February 1989, p. 1; ‘SADF Men Sent Home after Satanism Probe’, The Cape Times, 15 February 1989, p. 26 and ‘Satanism and the SADF’, Sunday Times, 30 June 1991, p. 14.

¹⁵⁸ ‘Satanism and the SADF’, Sunday Times, 30 June 1991, p. 14.

¹⁵⁹ Bowman has noted similar sentiments expressed in the growing concern over children and paedophilia during the same period. See Bowman, ‘Children, Pathology and Politics’, pp. 443–64.