Tobacco Farming Following Land Reform in Zimbabwe: A New Dynamic of Social Differentiation and Accumulation

Figures & data

Figure 1. Map of Mvurwi farming area in Mazowe district.

Source: APRA, 2020.

Table 1. Farmer typology (six clusters) in relation to the six principal component variables.

Sample (%) N = 310	Cluster 1	Cluster 2	Cluster 3	Cluster 4	Cluster 5	Cluster 6
	46.1	28.8	3.2	17.8	2.8	1.3
Cluster size (N)	143	88	10	56	9	4
Crop inputs sources	94.4% rely on agro-dealers, 5.6% are supplied by contractors	83.9% buy from agro-dealers, 13.8% are supplied by contractors (32.5% is contracted). 2.3% access government support	90% rely on agro-dealers while 10% are supplied by contractors (38.9% is contracted).	90.9% rely on agro-dealers, 7.3% from contractors (25% is contracted) and 1.8% through government support.	100% buy from agro-dealers.	75% buy from agro-dealers and 25% secure from contractors.
% female headed households	25.5	16.3	20	16.4	12.5	0
Tobacco area planted in 2016/17 (ha)	0.12	1.0	0.9	2.3	0.4	3.9
Mean crop sales in 2016/17 (US$)	2,483	5,090	6,391	8,348	4,986	3,1246
Average number of male and female permanent workers in 2017	0.5	0.4	1.6	0.9	1.4	2.3
Food security, (% gone for the whole day and night without food in the past 4 weeks)	80	20	0	0	0	0

Source: APRA, 2020.

Table 2. Farmer typology (six clusters) in relation to pre-land reform occupation.

Sample N = 310	Cluster 1 (%)	Cluster 2 (%)	Cluster 3 (%)	Cluster 4 (%)	Cluster 5 (%)	Cluster 6 (%)
Communal farmers	64.8	71.8	33.3	81.8	0.0	50.0
Farm worker	16.2	9.4	0.0	3.6	0.0	0.0
Civil servant	7.0	8.2	44.4	3.6	75.0	25.0
Security Service	4.2	1.2	11.1	1.8	12.5	0.0
Business	3.5	2.4	0.0	1.8	12.5	25.0
Private sector	4.2	7.1	11.1	7.3	0.0	0.0

Source: APRA, 2020.

Table 3. Age profiles and educational qualification of household heads.

Sample N = 310	Cluster 1	Cluster 2	Cluster 3	Cluster 4	Cluster 5	Cluster 6
Distribution of age groups of the household head	46.5% aged 46–65, 22.2% aged 0–35	60.9% aged 46−65	60% aged 36–45	40.7% aged 46–65, 11.1% aged 0–35	50% aged 46–65	100% aged 46–65
% of household heads completed (Form 4) secondary school and above	42.0	42.5	80	50.9	100	75

Source: APRA, 2020.

Table 4. Crop production and sales, 2016–17.

Sample N = 310	Cluster 1	Cluster 2	Cluster 3	Cluster 4	Cluster 5	Cluster 6
Area of maize (ha)	1.5	1.9	1.7	1.9	1.8	4.0
Maize harvested (tonnes)	4.1	53.7	5.3	6.1	5.1	15.8
Maize sold (tonnes)	2.9	41.4	4.2	4.3	2.9	9.7
Area of tobacco (ha)	0.1	1.0	0.9	2.3	0.4	3.9
Tobacco harvested (kg)	458.0	1,330.9	2,550.0	3,228.1	2,250.0	7,937.5

Source: APRA, 2020.

Table 5. Average asset ownership per household.

Sample N = 310	Cluster 1	Cluster 2	Cluster 3	Cluster 4	Cluster 5	Cluster 6
Cattle owned (N))	5.1	11.1	5.0	9.9	15.6	10.0
Ploughs owned (N)	0.9	1.3	0.8	1.3	0.9	1.8
Scotch carts owned (N)	0.7	1.0	0.8	1.2	0.8	1.3
Individual water pumps (N)	0.0	0.2	0.0	0.1	0.1	1.3
Televisions (N)	0.5	0.8	0.5	0.9	0.8	0.8
Tractors (N)	0.0	0.0	0.0	0.1	0.1	0.3
Solar panels (N)	1.0	1.1	0.8	1.0	1.1	1.3

Source: APRA, 2020.

Figure A1. Scree plot.

Source: APRA, 2020.

Table A2. Description of variables used in PCA and communalities variable extraction (those shaded are the 6 PCs retained using Kaiser’s criteria).

	Variables	Description	Measurement units	Initial	Extraction
1	Marital status	Whether single, married, divorced separated or widowed	Categorical	1.000	.917
2	Farming input sources	Source of farming inputs for the household	Categorical (kgs)	1.000	.895
3	Food security	Number of months for which a household is food secure	Continuous	1.000	.887
4	Tobacco area planted	Average household tobacco area planted in 2016/7 farming season	Continuous (hectares)	1.000	.882
5	Male permanent farmworkers	The average number of permanent workers employed per household in 2017	Continuous	1.000	.881
6	Total income from crop sales (US$)	Total sales from all crops	Continuous	1.000	.876
7	Gender of the household head	Whether male or female	Categorical	1.000	.870
8	Female employees	The average number of permanent workers employed per household in 2017	Continuous	1.000	.857
9	Economic activity	Major economic activity for the household (formal, informal and farming)	Categorical	1.000	.855
10	Primary activity	Member’s primary activity	Categorical	1.000	.833
11	Farm employment income	Farm wage income for farm labour	Continuous (USD)	1.000	.813
12	Type of legal papers held	Land tenure system for the land held (leases, permits and nothing)	Categorical	1.000	.810
13	Livestock income	Income from the sale of cattle and other animals	Continuous (USD)	1.000	.801
14	Total arable land allocated	Land held by household under the A1 scheme	Continuous (hectares)	1.000	.765
15	Maize area planted	The total land under maize crop	Continuous (hectares)	1.000	.635
16	Cattle owned	No of cattle owned	Continuous	1.000	.576

Source: APRA, 2020.

Table A3. KMO and Bartlett’s Test.

Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin measure of sampling adequacy		.600
Bartlett’s test of sphericity	approx. Chi-Square	277.212
	df	105
	Sig.	.000

Source: APRA, 2020.

Table A1. Extraction method: principal component analysis (total variance explained).

Component	Initial Eigenvalues			Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings			Rotation Sums of Squared Loadin
	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %	Total	% of Variance	Cumulative %
1	3.945	24.658	24.658	3.945	24.658	24.658	2.969	18.557	18.557
2	2.938	18.363	43.021	2.938	18.363	43.021	2.528	15.803	34.360
3	2.194	13.710	56.730	2.194	13.710	56.730	2.164	13.524	47.885
4	1.632	10.200	66.931	1.632	10.200	66.931	2.103	13.141	61.026
5	1.266	7.912	74.843	1.266	7.912	74.843	1.742	10.886	71.912
6	1.176	7.350	82.192	1.176	7.350	82.192	1.645	10.280	82.192
7	.723	4.520	86.712
8	.690	4.312	91.024
9	.346	2.162	93.186
10	.299	1.868	95.054
11	.190	1.190	96.244
12	.165	1.029	97.273
13	.140	.873	98.146
14	.126	.791	98.937
15	.095	.592	99.529
16	.075	.471	100.000

Source: APRA, 2020.