ASSURING A FREE AND OPEN INDO-PACIFIC – REBALANCING THE US APPROACH

Abstract

Borrowing the term ‘Indo-Pacific’ from Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and refashioning the Obama ‘Pivot to Asia’ or ‘Rebalance Strategy’, the Trump administration has articulated a vision of a Free and Open Indo-Pacific (FOIP), which, as its public discourse and official documents reveal, is defined through the lens of great power competition with China. Since the latter part of 2017, the administration has laid the groundwork for a whole-of-government approach aimed at advancing this vision, which consists of three pillars: economy, governance, and security. Southeast Asia – a dynamic sub-region and the fulcrum of the wider Indo-Pacific – is central to the evolving US strategy. However, in its current form, that strategy casts China in the role of an existential threat and economic enemy, and seems overly focused on military security. For these reasons, it is unlikely to garner the full support of allies and partners – without which shared prosperity, good governance, and a peaceful and secure regional order across the Indo-Pacific cannot be assured. A repositioning and repurposing of the recently resuscitated Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (or Quad) could transform this minilateral platform into a useful instrument to coordinate the four members' actions, leverage the capabilities of Quad-Plus countries, and engage ASEAN in managing non-traditional security challenges and furthering its connectivity agenda.

Keywords:

• United States
• China
• Indo-Pacific
• Quad
• ASEAN

Notes

1 The term was coined by Gurpreet S. Khurana, an Indian naval officer, regarding the importance of cooperation between India and Japan to secure “Pacific and Indian Ocean ‘maritime lifelines’”. See Gurpreet S. Khurana, ‘Security of Sea Lines: Prospects for India–Japan Cooperation’. Strategic Analysis Vol. 31. Issue 1 (2007): 139–153.

2 Government of Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ‘“Confluence of the Two Seas”’. Speech by H.E. Mr. Shinzo Abe, Prime Minister of Japan at the Parliament of the Republic of India. August 22, 2007. https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/pmv0708/speech-2.html (accessed 10 January 2019).

3 Purnendra Jain and Takenori Horemoto, ‘Japan and the Indo-Pacific’, in Priya Chako (Ed.), New Regional Geopolitics in the Indo-Pacific: Drivers, Dynamics and Consequences. London: Routledge, 2016, pp. 26–42; J.D.J. Brown, ‘Japan’s Values-Free and Token Indo-Pacific Strategy’. The Diplomat, March 30, 2018.

4 The White House, The National Security Strategy of the United States (2002), p. 27. http://nssarchive.us/NSSR/2002.pdf.

5 Nicholas Burns, ‘America’s Strategic Opportunity with India’. Foreign Affairs Vol. 86. Issue 6 (2007): 131–146.

6 See David Scott, ‘The Indo-Pacific in US Strategy: Responding to Power Shifts’. Rising Powers Quarterly Vol. 3. Issue 2 (2018): 19–43. http://risingpowersproject.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/vol3.2-scott.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

7 Hillary Rodham Clinton, ‘America’s Engagement in the Asia-Pacific’, October 28, 2010. https://2009-2017.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2010/10/150141.htm (accessed 10 January 2020).

8 Hillary Rodham Clinton, ‘America’s Pacific Century’. Foreign Policy, October 11, 2011. http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/10/11/americas-pacific-century/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

9 Hillary Rodham Clinton, ‘Delivering on the Promise of Economic Statecraft’. November 17, 2012. https://2009-2017.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2012/11/200664.htm (accessed 10 January 2020).

10 Leon Panetta, ‘Remarks by Secretary Panetta at the Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses in New Delhi, India’. June 6, 2012. https://archive.defense.gov/transcripts/transcript.aspx?transcriptid=5054 (accessed 10 January 2020).

11 Chuck Hagel, ‘Remarks to the Observer Research Foundation’. Defense News, August 9, 2014. https://www.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript-View/Article/606907/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

12 Michael D. Swaine, ‘Creating an Unstable Asia: The U.S. “Free and Open Pacific Strategy”’. Foreign Affairs, available at CEIP, March 2, 2018. https://carnegieendowment.org/2018/03/02/creating-unstable-asia-u.s.-free-and-open-indo-pacific-strategy-pub-75720 (accessed 10 January 2020).

13 Clinton, ‘America’s Pacific Century’.

14 See John Kerry, ‘China, America and Our Warming Planet’. New York Times, November 11, 2014. https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/12/opinion/john-kerry-our-historic-agreement-with-china-on-climatechange.html (accessed 10 January 2020).

15 Phillip C. Saunders, ‘China’s Rising Power, the U.S. Rebalance to Asia, and Implications for U.S.-China Relations’. Issues & Studies Vol. 50. Issue 3 (2014): 32. https://inss.ndu.edu/Portals/82/Documents/chinas-rising-power.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

16 See ‘Defining Our Relationship with India for the Next Century: An Address by U.S. Secretary of State Rex Tillerson,’ Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), October 17, 2017. https://www.csis.org/analysis/defining-our-relationship-india-next-century-address-us-secretary-state-rex-tillerson (accessed 10 January 2020).

17 Donald J. Trump, ‘Remarks by President Trump at APEC CEO Summit | Da Nang, Vietnam’. November 10, 2017. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-trump-apec-ceo-summit-da-nang-vietnam/.

18 Statement of Alex Wong Deputy Assistant Secretary Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs US Department of State Before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee Subcommittee on East Asia, the Pacific, and International Cybersecurity Policy, May 15, 2018. https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/051518_Wong_Testimony.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

19 James Mattis, ‘Remarks by Secretary Mattis at Plenary Session of the 2018 Shangri-La Dialogue’. Defense News, June 2, 2018. https://dod.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript-View/Article/1538599/remarks-by-secretary-mattis-at-plenary-session-of-the-2018-shangri-la-dialogue/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

20 Mattis, ‘Remarks by Secretary Mattis at Plenary Session of the 2018 Shangri-La Dialogue’.

21 US Department of Defense, Indo-Pacific Strategy Report, June 1, 2019, p. 1. https://media.defense.gov/2019/Jul/01/2002152311/-1/-1/1/DEPARTMENT-OF-DEFENSE-INDO-PACIFIC-STRATEGY-REPORT-2019.PDF (accessed 10 January 2020).

22 Statement by Randall G. Schriver, Assistant Secretary Of Defense For Indo-Pacific Security Affairs Office of the Secretary of Defense Before the 116th Congress Committee on Armed Services US House of Representatives, March 27, 2019. https://armedservices.house.gov/_cache/files/e/f/effc8d86-1611-49c7-9bea-53c7a19b75fe/F92E6F87912814548BF502659CD16299.asd-schriver---opening-statement---03-25-2019---final.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

23 The White House, 2017 National Security Strategy of the United States, p. 25. https://www.whitehoU.S.e.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

24 US Department of Defense, Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy, ‘Sharpening the American Military’s Competitive Edge’. p. 2. https://dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

25 US Department of Defense, Indo-Pacific Strategy Report, p. 8.

26 US Department of Defense Annual Report to Congress, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2019, May 8, 2019. https://media.defense.gov/2019/May/02/2002127082/-1/-1/1/2019_CHINA_MILITARY_POWER_REPORT.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

27 Admiral John C. Aquilino, U.S. Pacific Fleet Change of Command Ceremony Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, May 17, 2018. http://www.cpf.navy.mil/leaders/john-aquilino/speeches/2018/05/change-of-command.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

28 2017 National Security Strategy of the United States, p. 17; and US Department of Defense, Assessing and Strengthening the Manufacturing and Defense Industrial Base and Supply Chain Resiliency of the United States, October 5, 2018, p. 94. https://media.defense.gov/2018/Oct/05/2002048904/-1/-1/1/ASSESSING-AND-STRENGTHENING-THE-MANUFACTURING-AND-DEFENSE-INDUSTRIAL-BASE-AND-SUPPLY-CHAIN-RESILIENCY.PDF (accessed 10 January 2020).

29 Michael R. Pompeo, Remarks on ‘America’s Indo-Pacific Economic Vision’. July 30, 2018. https://www.state.gov/remarks-on-americas-indo-pacific-economic-vision/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

30 Patrick Shanahan, Testimony Before the House Armed Services Committee, March 26, 2019. https://armedservices.house.gov/_cache/files/5/f/5fc93125-5cbc-4f1f-b630-9aba61a01a69/C4273A8E7D721F62BAA72B57D811880D.2019-03-26---shanahan-hasc-written-testimony---final.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

31 Uri Friedman, ‘The New Concept Everyone in Washington Is Talking About’. The Atlantic, August 6, 2019. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2019/08/what-genesis-great-power-competition/595405/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

32 For the text of ARIA, which was signed into law as Public Law No: 115–409 on December 31, 2018, see https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/2736/text (accessed 10 January 2020). For an excellent short piece highlighting ARIA’s key elements, see Carl Thayer, ‘ARIA: Congress Makes Its Mark on US Asia Policy’. The Diplomat. January 8, 2019.

33 Pompeo, Remarks on ‘America’s Indo-Pacific Economic Vision’.

34 Ibid.

35 See views of Matt Pottinger, (former) Special Assistant to US President Donald Trump and National Security Council (NSC) Senior Director for East Asia, reported in ‘United States Says It Supports China’s Infrastructure Connectivity’. Reuters, May 14, 2017. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-silkroad-usa/united-states-says-it-supports-chinas-infrastructure-connectivity-plan-idUSKCN18A0D2 (accessed 10 January 2020).

36 See 2017 National Security Strategy; and US-China Economic and Security Commission (USCC), 2018 Annual Report to Congress, pp. 12–13. https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/annual_reports/2018%20Annual%20Report%20to%20Congress.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

37 US Trade and Development Agency (USTDA), ‘Indo-Pacific’. https://ustda.gov/program/regions/south-and-southeast-asia (accessed 10 January 2020).

38 US Agency for International Development (USAID), ‘USAID’s Strategic Approach to Advancing America’s Vision for a Free and Open Indo-Pacific’. June 2019. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1861/StrategicApproach_Indo-Pacific-Vision.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

39 US Agency for International Development (USAID), ‘Forging Just and Accountable Governance in the Indo-Pacific Region’. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1861/USAID_and_the_Indo-Pacific_Transparency_Initiative_-_Fact_Sheet_June_19_2019.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

40 Infrastructure Transaction and Assistance Network (ITAN), https://2016.export.gov/indopacific/itan/index.asp (accessed 10 January 2020).

41 Digital Connectivity and Cybersecurity Partnership (DCCP), https://build.export.gov/build/idcplg?IdcService=DOWNLOAD_PUBLIC_FILE&RevisionSelectionMethod=Latest&dDocName=eg_ip_127503 (accessed 10 January 2020).

42 US Department of State, ‘Asia EDGE – Enhancing Development and Growth through Energy’. https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/AsiaEDGE-FAQs-Public-FINAL-05282019-1.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

43 US Agency for International Development (USAID), ‘U.S. Agency For International Development Administrator Mark Green’s Remarks at the Indo-Pacific Business Forum’. July 30, 2018. https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/jul-30-2018-administrator-mark-green-remarks-indo-pacific-business-forum (accessed 10 January 2020).

44 Adva Saldinger, ‘2 Months Until Launch, How is the New US DFI Shaping Up?’ Devex, July 30, 2019. https://www.devex.com/news/2-months-until-launch-how-is-the-new-us-dfi-shaping-up-95369 (accessed 10 January 2020).

45 US Department of State, The Infrastructure Transaction and Assistance Network (ITAN). https://build.export.gov/build/idcplg?IdcService=DOWNLOAD_PUBLIC_FILE&RevisionSelectionMethod=Latest&dDocName=eg_ip_127502 (accessed 10 January 2020).

46 See US Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC), ‘OPIC, JBIC, and DFAT/Efic Reaffirm Commitment To Indo-Pacific Infrastructure Development’. June 25, 2019. https://www.opic.gov/press-releases/2019/opic-jbic-and-dfatefic-reaffirm-commitment-indo-pacific-infrastructure-development (accessed 26 August 2019); US Department of State, ‘Advancing a Free and Open Indo-Pacific Region’. Fact Sheet, November 18, 2018. https://www.state.gov/advancing-a-free-and-open-indo-pacific-region/ (accessed 26 August 2019).

47 US Department of Defense, Indo-Pacific Strategy Report, 16, 21.

48 David Brunnstromm, ‘U.S. Seeks Meeting Soon to Revive Asia-Pacific “Quad” Security Forum’. Reuters, October 27, 2017. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-asia-quad/u-s-seeks-meeting-soon-to-revive-asia-pacific-quad-security-forum-idUSKBN1CW2O1 (accessed 10 January 2020).

49 Chinese Minister of Foreign Affairs Wang Yi was dismissive of the idea of reviving the Quad, comparing it to “foam in the ocean, destined to dissipate soon”. See Foreign Ministry of the People’s republic of China, ‘Foreign Minister Wang Yi Meets the Press’. March 9, 2019. https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1540928.shtml (accessed 10 January 2020).

50 The Quad has its origins in the Tsunami Core Group, which was instrumental in coordinating multilateral humanitarian assistance and disaster relief operation in response to the massive Indian ocean earthquake and tsunami in December 2004. See Marc Grossman, ‘The Tsunami Core Group: A Step toward a Transformed Diplomacy in Asia and Beyond’. Security Challenges Vol. 1, Issue 1 (2005). http://www.securitychallenges.org.au/ArticlePDFs/vol1no1Grossman.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

51 See Tanvi Madan, ‘The Rise, Fall, and Return of the Quad’. War on the Rocks, November 16, 2017. https://warontherocks.com/2017/11/rise-fall-rebirth-quad/ (10 accessed January 2020); Emma Chanlett-Avery and Bruce Vaughn, ‘Emerging Trends in the Security Architecture in Asia: Bilateral and Multilateral Ties Among the United States, Japan, Australia, and India’. CRS Report for Congress, January 7, 2008, p. 4. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34312.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

52 Quoted in Karen Parrish, ‘“Let’s be Ambitious Together” Pacom Commander Urges in India’. Defense News, March 4, 2016. https://dod.defense.gov/News/Article/article/686250/lets-be-ambitious-together-pacom-commander-urges-in-india/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

53 Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Tokyo Declaration for India – Japan Special Strategic and Global Partnership, September 2014, p. 1. https://www.mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/23965/tokyo±declaration±for±india±±japan±special±strategic±and±global±partnership (accessed 10 January 2020).

54 Government of India, Ministry of External Affairs, Framework for Security Cooperation between India and Australia, November 18, 2014. http://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/24268/Framework_for_Security_Cooperation_between_India_and_Australia (accessed 10 January 2020).

55 The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, ‘The United States and India: Enduring Global Partners in the 21st Century’. June 7, 2016. https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/07/joint-statement-united-states-and-india-enduring-global-partners-21st (accessed 10 January 2020); U.S. Department of State, ‘U.S. Security Cooperation with India’. June 4, 2019. https://www.state.gov/u-s-security-cooperation-with-india/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

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57 ‘Return of the Quad’. The Diplomat, April 27, 2018.

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59 Patrick M. Cronin, ‘US Asia Strategy: Beyond the Quad’. Hudson Institute, March 9, 2019. https://www.hudson.org/research/14872-us-asia-strategy-beyond-the-quad (accessed 10 January 2020).

60 Asia Reassurance Act of 2018, https://www.congress.gov/115/bills/s2736/BILLS-115s2736enr.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

61 Note that the grouping is no longer referred to as a “Quadrilateral Security Dialogue” but instead as the “U.S.-Australia-India-Japan Consultations”. US Department of State, ‘U.S.-Australia-India-Japan Consultations (“The Quad”)’. May 31, 2019. https://www.state.gov/u-s-australia-india-japan-consultations-the-quad/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

62 Jeff Smith, ‘The Return of the Indo-Pacific Quad’. The National Interest, July 26, 2018. https://nationalinterest.org/feature/return-indo-pacific-quad-26891 (accessed August 26, 2019)

63 The White House, 2017 National Security Strategy, 45–46.

64 Australia’s White Paper on Foreign Policy of 2017 termed the Indo-Pacific as the “region ranging from the eastern Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean connected by Southeast Asia, including India, North Asia and the United States”. See Government of Australia, 2017 Foreign Policy White Paper, Glossary of Terms. https://www.fpwhitepaper.gov.au/foreign-policy-white-paper/glossary-terms (accessed 10 January 2020).

65 Japan’s “envisioning” of the geographic scope appears to encompass the continents of the two oceans and the continents of Africa and Asia. See Government of Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Cooperation Bureau, Priority Policy for Development Cooperation FY2017, p. 9. https://www.mofa.go.jp/files/000259285.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

66 Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi defined the Indo-Pacific as stretching “from the shores of Africa to that of the Americas”. See Government of Japan, Ministry of External Affairs, ‘Prime Minister’s Keynote Address at Shangri La Dialogue’. June 1, 2018. https://www.mea.gov.in/Speeches-Statements.htm?dtl/29943/Prime±Ministers±Keynote±Address±at±Shangri±La±Dialogue±June±01±2018 (accessed 10 January 2020).

67 Rahul Roy-Chaudhury and Kate Sullivan de Estrada, ‘India, the Indo-Pacific and the Quad’, Survival Vol. 60, Issue 3 (2018): 184–186; Anasua Basu Ray Chaudhury and Premesha Saha, ‘India in Pivotal Geographies: Indo-Pacific’. Observer Research Foundation (ORF), August 13, 2019. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/india-in-pivotal-geographies-indo-pacific-54305/ (accessed 10 January 2020); Ash Rossiter, ‘The “Free and Open Indo-Pacific” Strategy and Japan’s Emerging Security Posture’. Rising Powers Quarterly Vol. 3. Issue 2 (2018): 113–131.

68 Roy-Chaudhury and Sullivan de Estrada, ‘India, the Indo-Pacific and the Quad’.

69 Shiro Armstrong, ‘What Abe’s China Trip Means for the Belt and Road – And What Japan Has to Gain’. South China Morning Post, October 25, 2018. https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/2169863/what-abes-china-trip-means-belt-and-road-and-what-japan-has-gain (accessed 10 January 2020).

70 Clinton, ‘America’s Engagement in the Asia-Pacific’.

71 Lindsey Ford, ‘The U.S.-ASEAN Partnership and the Indo-Pacific’. The National Bureau of Asian Research, February 2019, p. 3. https://asiasociety.org/sites/default/files/2019-02/The%20U.S.-ASEAN%20Partnership%20in%20the%20Indo-Pacific.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

72 Michael Pence, ‘Prepared Remarks for Vice President Pence at the East Asia Summit Plenary Session’. November 15, 2018. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/prepared-remarks-vice-president-pence-east-asia-summit-plenary-session/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

73 Michael R. Pompeo, ‘Secretary of State Michael R. Pompeo Opening Remarks at U.S.-ASEAN Ministerial’. August 1, 2019. https://www.state.gov/secretary-of-state-michael-r-pompeo-opening-remarks-at-u-s-asean-ministerial/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

74 Lee Hsien Loong, Keynote Address, 18th Asia Security Summit: The IISS Shangri-La Dialogue, May 31, 2019. https://www.iiss.org/-/media/files/shangri-la-dialogue/2019/speeches/keynote-address--lee-hsien-loong-prime-minister-of-singapore--provisional.ashx (accessed 10 January 2020).

75 Dewi Foruna Anwar, ‘Indonesia’s Vision of Regional Order in East Asia Amid U.S.-China Rivalry: Continuity and Change’. Asia Policy Vol. 13, Issue 2 (2018): 57–63; Donald E. Weatherbee, ‘Indonesia, ASEAN, and the Indo-Pacific Cooperation Concept’. ISEAS Ishok Yusuf Institute, No. 47 (2019), https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2019_47.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020); John McBeth, ‘Is Indonesia’s Widodo in China’s Pocket?’ Asia Times, December 11, 2017.

76 See Evan Laksmana, ‘Pragmatic Equidistance: How Indonesia Manages Its Great Power Relations’, in David B.H. Denoon (Ed.), China, the United States and the Future of Southeast Asia: U.S.-China Relations. New York: New York University Press, 2017, pp. 116–135.

77 For the full text of the five-page statement, see https://asean.org/storage/2019/06/ASEAN-Outlook-on-the-Indo-Pacific_FINAL_22062019.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

78 Mie Oba, ‘ASEAN’s Indo-Pacific Concept and the Great Power Challenge’. The Diplomat, July 17, 2019.

79 See press statement by State Department Spokesperson Morgan Ortagus, ‘The United States Welcomes the “ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific”’. July 2, 2019. https://www.state.gov/the-united-states-welcomes-the-asean-outlook-on-the-indo-pacific/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

80 Government of India, Indian Ministry of External Affairs, ‘India–Australia–Japan–U.S. Consultations on Indo-Pacific’.

81 Government of Australia, 2017 Foreign Policy White Paper. For an excellent overview of the Indo-Pacific Region construct in Australian government’s official documents and positions, see Carlyle A. Thayer, ‘Free and Open Indo-pacific and Its Implications: An Australian Perspective’, Outcome Report, Regional Conference on ‘Whither the Indo-Pacific Strategy?’ Phnom Penh, Cambodia, September 20–21, 2018, pp. 153–173. http://www.cicp.org.kh/userfiles/file/Publications/3_Indo-Pacific%20Strategy_High%20Res.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

82 Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), ‘Joint Statement of the 21st ASEAN-Japan Summit to Commemorate the 45th Anniversary of ASEAN-Japan Friendship and Cooperation’. November 13, 2018. https://asean.org/storage/2018/11/ASEAN-Japan-Joint-Statement.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020); Prashanth Parameswaran, ‘ASEAN’s Role in Japan’s Indo-Pacific Strategy’. The Diplomat, February 13, 2018.

83 Rory Medcalf, ‘The Indo-Pacific: What’s in a Name?’ The American Interest, October 10, 2013. https://www.the-american-interest.com/2013/10/10/the-indo-pacific-whats-in-a-name/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

84 Evan Feigenbaum and Robert Manning, ‘A Tale of Two Asias’. Foreign Policy, October 31, 2012. Accessed 26 August 2019. https://foreignpolicy.com/2012/10/31/a-tale-of-two-asias/ (accessed 10 January 2020).

85 Evelyn Goh, ‘Southeast Asian Strategies Toward the Great Powers: Still Hedging after All These Years?’ Asan Institute Special Forum, February 22, 2016. http://www.theasanforum.org/southeast-asian-strategies-toward-the-great-powers-still-hedging-after-all-these-years/ (accessed 10 January 2020); Bilahari Kausikan, ‘Dodging and Hedging in Southeast Asia’. The American Prospect Vol. 12, Issue 5 (2017): 1–10; Ann Marie Murphy, ‘Great Power Rivalries, Domestic Politics and Southeast Asian Foreign Policy: Exploring the Linkages’. Asian Security Vol. 13, Issue 3 (2017): 165–182; Ralf Emmers, ‘Unpacking ASEAN Neutrality: The Quest for Autonomy and Impartiality in Southeast Asia’, Contemporary Southeast Asia Vol. 40, Issue 3 (2018): 349–370.

86 Priya Chako and David Willis, ‘Pivoting to Indo-Pacific: The Limits of Indian and Indonesian Integration’, East Asia Vol. 35, Issue 2 (2018): 133–148.

87 Thomas S. Wilkins, ‘Australia and the “Indo Pacific” Concept – Disambiguating the “Idea” and the “Region” from Quadrilateral “Strategy”’. JIIA Policy Brief, July 19, 2018, p. 5. https://www.jiia-jic.jp/en/policybrief/pdf/PolicyBrief_Wilkins_Australia_and_the_Indo_Pacific_comcept.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020). For an excellent discussion of the opportunities and challenges associated with possible Quad cooperation on humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HA/DR) and disaster prevention, see Yuki Tatsumi and Jason Li (Eds.), International Disaster Response: Rebuilding the Quad? The Stimson Center, March 2019. https://www.stimson.org/sites/default/files/Read%20the%20Report.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

88 Tatsumi and Li, International Disaster Response: Rebuilding the Quad?; Abhijit Singh, ‘The Nautical Dimension of India’s “Act East’ Policy”’. RSIS Policy Report, April 2018. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/PR180409_The-Nautical-Dimension-of-Indias-Act-East-Policy.pdf (accessed 10 January 2020).

89 See M. Taylor Fravel et al., ‘China is Not an Enemy’. The Washington Post, July 3, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/making-china-a-us-enemy-is-counterproductive/2019/07/02/647d49d0-9bfa-11e9-b27f-ed2942f73d70_story.html (accessed 10 January 2020); Aubrey Hruby, ‘Congress Must Invest Properly in the Development Finance Corporation’. The Hill, June 3, 2019. https://thehill.com/opinion/finance/446580-congress-must-invest-properly-in-the-dfc (accessed 10 January 2020).

90 Malcolm Cook, ‘Hedging Harder: Southeast Asia and the US-China Rivalry’. The Asan Forum, December 21, 2018. http://www.theasanforum.org/hedging-harder-southeast-asia-and-the-us-china-rivalry/#4 (accessed 10 January 2020); Liu Zhen and Catherine Wong, ‘Most Asean Countries “Want to Stay Out of Beijing’s South China Sea Dispute with the Philippines”’. South China Morning News, July 28, 2016. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/1995991/most-asean-countries-want-stay-out-beijings-south-china (accessed 10 January 2020); John McBeth, ‘Is Indonesia’s Widodo in China’s Pocket?’ Asia Times, December 11, 2017. See also remarks by Singapore Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong before reporters at the 33rd ASEAN Summit, cited in Seow Bei Yi, ‘Asean Has to Work with the World as It Is: PM Lee Hsien Loong’. The Straits Times, November 15, 2018. https://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/asean-has-to-work-with-the-world-as-it-is-and-hope-that-it-does-not-have-to-take-sides-pm (accessed 10 January 2020).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

John Calabrese

Dr. John Calabrese teaches U.S. foreign policy at American University in Washington, D.C. He is the author of China’s Changing Relations with the Middle East and Revolutionary Horizons: Iran’s Regional Foreign Policy; serves as Director of the Middle East-Asia Project (MAP); and is the book review editor of The Middle East Journal.