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Abstract
This article focuses on the contested region of Kashmir and investigates how the nation-building project that accompanied the partition of the South Asian subcontinent, along with the creation of the ceasefire line that divided the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir between India and Pakistan, shaped the question of belonging for the majority of its Muslim inhabitants, especially from the 1940s to the 1960s. It reveals the bureaucratic procedures put in place by the new nation-states, both driven by the question of self-determination pending in the United Nations and devoid of human considerations, made Kashmiris apprehensive about the motivations of both states. The article argues that Kashmiri belonging after partition did not seamlessly merge into the national identities of India or Pakistan. Instead, the anxieties of partition and structural challenges created by the arbitrary ceasefire line shaped Kashmir Muslim perceptions. Drawing from intercepted letters, pamphlets, and biographies, this article reveals the irrelevance of such artificial ‘borders’ in the Kashmiri psyche. In the process, it asserts that the Kashmiri demand for self-determination became intertwined with the desire for the reunification of the old princely state that would promote human-to-human contact, reopen old trade routes, and promote economic self-sufficiency.
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Correction Statement
This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
Notes
1 Text of Agreement between Military Representatives of India and Pakistan Regarding the Establishment of Ceasefire line in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, 1949, Indian Treaty Series, commonlii.org (accessed 22 July 2021).
2 Alastair Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846–1990. Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1992; Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hopes of Peace. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997; Navnita Chadha Behera, Demystifying Kashmir. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute Press, 2006; Sumantra Bose, The Challenge in Kashmir: Democracy, Self-Determination, and a Just Peace. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1997.
3 For discussion of Kashmiriyat see: Chitralekha Zutshi, Languages of Belonging: Islam, Regional Identity, and the Making of Kashmir. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
4 ‘Political Note on Kashmir Problem’, Azad Kashmir Government Documents, MSS.Eur.D.704, India Office Library.
5 This paper is based on the historical themes discussed in my recently published book, Kashmir in the Aftermath of Partition. Cambridge University Press, 2021.
6 Shahla Hussain, Kashmir in the Aftermath of Partition. Cambridge University Press, 2021, p. 352.
7 Ibid., p. 60.
8 Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas, Kashmakash. Srinagar: Kashmir Studies Foundation, 2001.
9 Christopher Snedden, The Untold Story of the People of Azad Kashmir. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
10 Sardar Ibrahim Khan, The Kashmir Saga. Lahore: Ripon Printing Press, 1965.
11 Military Background of the Azad Kashmir Liberation Movement, Copy of a pamphlet in ‘Political and Military Matters: UNCIP Sub-committee on Western Kashmir and Gilgit, Tour & Report’. 18/02/1948 -04/04/1949. S-06-94-0002-14, United Nations Archives, New York.
12 Ziaul-Islam, The Revolution in Kashmir. Karachi: Pakistan Herald Press, 1948 pp. 14–26.
13 ‘Exodus of Muslims from Jammu’, Civil and Military Gazette, September 26, 1947.
14 Kashmir Before Accession. Lahore: Govt. Print, 1948, pp. i–iv.
15 As per the 1941 census the population of Jammu was 1,981,433. Muslims in Jammu were 1,215,676 and Hindus and Sikhs were 765,757. Even excluding Poonch, Muslims were in an overall majority, 61% population in the Jammu Province cited in Yusuf Saraf, Kashmir’s Fight for Freedom, Vol.1. Lahore: Ferozsons Ltd., 1977, p. 38.
16 S. M. Abdullah, The Blazing Chinar: An Autobiography. Translated from Urdu by Mohammad Amin. Srinagar: Gulshan Books, 2013, pp. 289–290.
17 Political and Military Matters: Propaganda, 08/01/1949-17/03/1949, S-0649-1-14, United Nations Archives, New York.
18 Mehmood Hashmi, Kashmir Udas Hai: Report. Lahore: Al-Faisal, 1994, pp. 25–44.
19 Political and Military Matters Propaganda08/01/1949-17/03/1949, S-0649-1-14, United Nations Archives, New York.
20 Hashmi, op. cit., pp. 25–27.
21 The Enemy Agents Ordinance, 2005 Enemy Agents Ordinance, 2005 (bareactslive.com) (accessed 22 July 2021).
22 Political Prisoners in Jammu and Kashmir. 08/03/1949-15/05/1949, S-0654-1-11, United Nations Archives, New York.
23 Abdul Mannan Khalifa, Kashmir Story. Lahore: Azeem Printers, 1970, pp. 80–94.
24 Interviews with displaced Kashmiri families on both sides of India-Pakistan divide.
25 Political and Military Matters, Economic and Political Situation in Jammu and Kashmir, 10/11/1947–7/10/1948. United Nations Archives, New York.
26 Hussain, op. cit., p. 82.
27 Substantive Matters: Refugees in Kashmir, 31/03/1949/ - 9/11/1949, S-0692-4-05 United Nations Archives, New York.
28 Custodian Property, Greater Kashmir, 13 March 2015.
29 Refer to: The Court Records. Jammu and Kashmir High Court, Srinagar.
30 Substantive Matters: Refugees in Kashmir, 31/03/1949/ - 9/11/1949, 1949, S-0692-4-05, United Nations Archives, New York.
31 Egress and Internal Movement (Control) Ordinance, 2005, https://www.indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/16444/1/egress_and_internal_movement_%28control%29_ordinance%2C_samvat_2005.pdf (accessed 22 July 2021).
32 ‘Discontinuance of telegrams between Azad Territory and rest of Kashmir state’, 4(11)-K/48, Ministry of States, National Archives of India, New Delhi cited in Hussain, op. cit., p. 83.
33 Vazira Zamindar, The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007 is a detailed study of how passports and permits were utilized by the postcolonial states to control the movements of people and ‘fix’ their belonging.
34 Hussain, op. cit., p. 85.
35 ‘India–Pakistan Passport System: Arrangements relating to the Jammu and Kashmir State’, 7/10 (15)-K/52, 1952, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
36 Ibid.
37 Hussain, op. cit., p. 86.
38 Hussain, Kashmir in the Aftermath of Partition, p. 90.
39 Various Suggestions received from the Public on the Kashmir Issue, 10(3) –K/48, Ministry of States, Indian National Archives, New Delhi.
40 Letter Intercepted by CID West Punjab, 1948. 14III (4)-PM8/48, Pakistan Archives, Islamabad.
41 Gyanendra Pandey, ‘Can a Muslim Be an Indian?’ Comparative Studies in Society and History Vol. 41. Issue 4 (October 1999): 608–629.
42 Hussain, op. cit., p. 91.
43 ‘Various Suggestions received from the Public on the Kashmir Issue’, Ministry of States, 10(3)-K/48, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
44 Ibid.
45 Ibid.
46 Hussain, op. cit., p. 91.
47 ‘Letter addressed to editor of Daily Milap from a person (name illegible), President, Independent Kashmir’, Srinagar, 1952, 8(4)-K/1952, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
48 A.G. Noorani, The Constitutional History of Jammu and Kashmir. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2011.
49 Cabeiri Robinson, Body of Victim, Body of Warrior: Refugee Families and the Making of Kashmiri Jihadists. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013.
50 ‘Report on General Conditions in Pakistan and Azad Kashmir’ 8(20) –K/51, Ministry of States, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
51 Ibid.
52 Ibid.
53 Yusuf Saraf, op. cit., pp. 1285-1306.
54 ‘Sensational Disclosures by Editor of Azad Kashmir’, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, IV/74/15/1957/KP, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
55 Intelligence Reports Regarding Kashmir Problem and Conditions in Kashmir, 8(22)-K/51. 1951: Ministry of State, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
56 ‘Intelligence Reports: Praja Parishad and other Hindu and Sikh parties in J & K State’, 8(3)-K/53, Ministry of States, National Archives of India, New Delhi.
57 Sadiq Ali and Madhu Limaye, Report on Kashmir. Bombay: Praja Socialist Party, 1954, pp. 1–34.
58 P. N. Bazaz, The History of Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir. Srinagar: Gulshan Publications, 2003, p. 572.
59 Hussain, op. cit., p. 187.
60 Raishumari, Srinagar, n.d. (Personal Collection of Ghulam Ahmed Bukhari, Budgam).
61 Ibid.
62 Hussain, op. cit., p. 193.
63 G. M. Shah, ‘Kashmir: Political Instability and Economic Strangulation’, Minorities Views 1, no. 1 (Kashmir Special Number, May 1968): 19–22.
64 G. H. Khan, Kashmiri Muslaman ki Iqhtisadi, Mahasharti aur Deeni Zarrorraten. Srinagar: Self-published, 1968 (personal collection of M. Khan, Srinagar).
65 Y. D. Gundevia, The Testament of Sheikh Abdullah. New Delhi: Palit & Palit, 1974, pp. 127–131.
66 Memorandum submitted by 25 prominent citizens of Azad Kashmir for the creation of ‘Neutralized Greater Kashmir’. Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, VI/134/16/7/1963KP.
67 P. N. Bazaz, Kashmir in Crucible, p. 83.
68 W. L. Allinson, Kashmir: A Report, October 15, 1965, Kashmir Internal Situation, DO 133/173, 1965, National Archives, Kew, UK, 82.
69 Sheikh Abdullah’s Statements during his visit Abroad, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting; Kashmir Publicity; 1964; File No: 426/vi (20)/1964/KP.
70 Hussain, op. cit., p. 120.
71 Ibid., p. 357.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Shahla Hussain
Shahla Hussain is an Associate Professor of South Asian history at St. John’s University, New York. Her research interests include themes of decolonization, colonialism, identity, and migrations. She received her Ph.D. from Tufts University. Her book, Kashmir in the Aftermath of Partition, is published by Cambridge University Press (2021).