Exploring technical and non-technical competencies of navigators for autonomous shipping

Figures & data

Figure 1. Degrees of autonomy as defined by IMO (adapted from IMO [2018]; Kim et al. 2019).

Table 1. Competences for navigation officers in operational role as listed in Table A-II/1 of STCW (IMO, 2011, 99–110)

Competence themes

Plan and conduct a passage and determine position

KUP 1 Ability to use celestial bodies to determine the ship’ position

KUP 2 Ability to determine the ship’s position by use of 1) landmarks, 2) aids to navigation, including lighthouses, beacons and buoys, 3) dead reckoning, taking into account winds, tides, currents and estimated speed

KUP 3 Have thorough knowledge of and ability to use nautical charts, and publications, such as sailing directions, tide tables, notices to mariners, radio navigational warnings and ships’ routing information

KUP 4 Ability to determine the ship’s position by use of electronic navigational aids

KUP 5 Ability to operate the equipment and apply the information correctly

KUP 6 Have knowledge of the principles of magnetic and gyro-compasses

KUP 7 Ability to determine errors of the magnetic and gyro-compasses, using celestial and terrestrial means, and to allow for such errors

KUP 8 Have knowledge of steering control systems, operational procedures and change-over from manual to automatic control and vice versa. Adjustment of controls for optimum performance

KUP 9 Ability to use and interpret information obtained from shipborne meteorological instruments

KUP 10 Have knowledge of the characteristics of the various weather systems, reporting procedures and recording systems

KUP 11 Ability to apply the meteorological information available

Maintain a safe navigational watch

KUP 12 Have thorough knowledge of the content, application and intent of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended

KUP 13 Have thorough knowledge of the Principles to be observed in keeping a navigational watch

KUP 14 Proficient in use of routing in accordance with the General Provisions on ships’ routing

KUP 15 Proficient in use of information from navigational equipment for maintaining a safe navigational watch

KUP 16 Have knowledge of blind pilotage techniques

KUP 17 Proficient in use of reporting in accordance with the General Principles for Ship Reporting Systems and with VTS procedures

KUP 18 Knowledge of bridge resource management principles, including 1) allocation, assignment, and prioritization of resources, 2) effective communication 3) assertiveness and leadership, 4) obtaining and maintaining situational awareness, 5) consideration of team experience

Use of radar and ARPA to maintain safety of navigation

KUP 19 Have knowledge of the fundamentals of radar and automatic radar plotting aids (ARPA)

KUP 20 Ability to operate and to interpret and analyse information obtained from radar and ARPA performance, including 1) factors affecting performance and accuracy, 2) setting up and maintaining displays, 3) detection of misrepresentation of information, false echoes, sea return, etc., racons and SARTs

KUP 21 Ability to operate and to interpret and analyse information obtained from radar and ARPA use, including 1) range and bearing; course and speed of other ships; time and distance of closest approach of crossing, meeting overtaking ships, 2) identification of critical echoes; detecting course and speed changes of other ships; effect of changes in own ship’s course or speed or both, 3) application of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended, 4) plotting techniques and relative- and true- motion concepts, 5) parallel indexing

KUP 22 Awareness of principal types of ARPA, their display characteristics, performance standards and the dangers of over-reliance on ARPA

KUP 23 Ability to operate and to interpret and analyse information obtained from ARPA, including 1) system performance and accuracy, tracking capabilities and limitations, and processing delays, 2) use of operational warnings and system tests, 3) methods of target acquisition and their limitations, 4) true and relative vectors, graphic representation of target information and danger areas, 5) deriving and analysing information, critical echoes, exclusion areas and trial manoeuvres

Use of ECDIS to maintain the safety of navigation

KUP 24 Have knowledge of the capability and limitations of ECDIS operations, including 1) a thorough understanding of Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) data, data accuracy, presentation rules, display options and other chart data formats, 2) the dangers of over-reliance, 3) familiarity with the functions of ECDIS required by performance standards in force

KUP 25 Proficient in operation, interpretation, and analysis of information obtained from ECDIS, including 1) use of functions that are integrated with other navigation systems in various installations, including proper functioning and adjustment to desired settings, 2) safe monitoring and adjustment of information, including own position, sea area display, mode and orientation, chart data displayed, route monitoring, user-created information layers, contacts (when interfaced with AIS and/or radar tracking) and radar overlay functions (when interfaced), 3) confirmation of vessel position by alternative means, 4) efficient use of settings to ensure conformance to operational procedures, including alarm parameters for anti-grounding, proximity to contacts and special areas, completeness of chart data and chart update status, and backup arrangements, 5) adjustment of settings and values to suit the present conditions, 6) situational awareness while using ECDIS including safe water and proximity of hazards, set and drift, chart data and scale selection, suitability of route, contact detection and management, and integrity of sensors.

Respond to emergencies

KUP 26 Ability to take precautions for the protection and safety of passengers in emergency situations

KUP 27 Ability to take initial actions following a collision or a grounding; and ability to assess initial damage and perform control

KUP 28 Appreciate the procedures to be followed for rescuing persons from the sea, assisting a ship in distress, responding to emergencies which arise in port

Respond to a distress signal at sea

KUP 29 Have knowledge of the contents of the International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue (IAMSAR) Manual

Use the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases and use English in written and Oral form

KUP 30 Have adequate knowledge of the English language to enable the officer to use charts and other nautical publications, to understand meteorological information and messages concerning ship’s safety and operation, to communicate with other ships, coast stations and VTS centres and to perform the officer’s duties also with a multilingual crew, including the ability to use and understand the IMO Standard Marine Communication Phrases (IMO SMCP)

Transmit and receive information by visual signalling

KUP 31 Ability to use the International Code of Signals

KUP 32 Ability to transmit and receive, by Morse light, distress signal SOS as specified in Annex IV of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972, as amended, and appendix 1 of the International Code of Signals, and visual signalling of single-letter signals as also specified in the International Code of Signals

Manoeuvre the ship

KUP 33 Have knowledge of ship manoeuvring and handling, including knowledge of 1) the effects of deadweight, draught, trim, speed and under-keel clearance on turning circles and stopping distances, 2) the effects of wind and current on ship handling, 3) manoeuvres and procedures for the rescue of person overboard, 4) squat, shallow-water and similar effects, 5) proper procedures for anchoring and mooring

Monitor the loading, stowage, securing, care during the voyage and the unloading of cargoes

KUP 34 Have knowledge of the effect of cargo, including heavy lifts, on the seaworthiness and stability of the ship

KUP 35 Have knowledge of safe handling, stowage and securing of cargoes, including dangerous, hazardous and harmful cargoes, and their effect on the safety of life and of the ship

KUP 36 Ability to establish and maintain effective communications during loading and unloading

Inspect and report defects and damage to cargo spaces, hatch covers and ballast tanks

KUP 37 Have knowledge and ability to explain where to look for damage and defects most commonly encountered due to 1) loading and unloading operations, 2) corrosion, 3) severe weather conditions

KUP 38 Ability to state which parts of the ship shall be inspected each time in order to cover all parts within a given period of time

KUP 39 Ability to identify those elements of the ship structure which are critical to the safety of the ship

KUP 40 Ability to state the causes of corrosion in cargo spaces and ballast tanks and how corrosion can be identified and prevented

KUP 41 Have knowledge of procedures on how the inspections shall be carried out

KUP 42 Ability to explain how to ensure reliable detection of defects and damages

KUP 43 Have understanding of the purpose of the ‘enhanced survey programme’

Ensure compliance with pollution prevention requirements

KUP 44 Have knowledge of the precautions to be taken to prevent pollution of the marine environment

KUP 45 Awareness of anti-pollution procedures and all associated equipment

KUP 46 Awareness of importance of proactive measures to protect the marine environment

Maintain seaworthiness of the ship

KUP 47 Have working knowledge and application of stability, trim and stress tables, diagrams and stress-calculating equipment

KUP 48 Have understanding of fundamental actions to be taken in the event of partial loss of intact buoyancy

KUP 49 Have understanding of the fundamentals of watertight integrity

KUP 50 Have general knowledge of the principal structural members of a ship and the proper names for the various parts

Prevent, control and fight fires onboard

KUP 51 Ability to organize fire drills

KUP 52 Have knowledge of classes and chemistry of fire

KUP 53 Have knowledge of fire-fighting systems

KUP 54 Have knowledge of action to be taken in the event of fire, including fires involving oil systems

Operate life-saving appliances

KUP 55 Ability to organize abandon ship drills and knowledge of the operation of survival craft and rescue boats, their launching appliances and arrangements, and their equipment, including radio life-saving appliances, satellite EPIRBs, SARTs, immersion suits and thermal protective aids

Apply medical first onboard ship

KUP 56 Awareness of the practical application of medical guides and advice by radio, including the ability to take effective action based on such knowledge in the case of accidents or illnesses that are likely to occur on board ship

Monitor compliance with legislative requirements

KUP 57 Have basic working knowledge of the relevant IMO conventions concerning safety of life at sea, security and protection of the marine environment

Application of leadership and teamworking skills

KUP 58 Have working knowledge of shipboard personnel management and training

KUP 59 Have knowledge of related international maritime conventions and recommendations, and national legislation

KUP 60 Ability to apply task and workload management, including 1) planning and co-ordination, 2) personnel assignment, 3) time and resource constraints, 4) prioritization

KUP 61 Have knowledge and ability to apply effective resource management, including 1) allocation, assignment, and prioritization of resources, 2) effective communication onboard and ashore, 3) decisions reflect consideration of team experiences, 4) assertiveness and leadership, including motivation, 5) obtaining and maintaining situational awareness

KUP 62 Have knowledge and ability to apply decision-making techniques, including 1) situation and risk assessment, 2) identify and consider generated options, 3) selecting course of action, 4) evaluation of outcome effectiveness

Contribute to the safety of personnel and ship

KUP 63 Have knowledge of personal survival techniques

KUP 64 Have knowledge of fire prevention and ability to fight and extinguish fires

KUP 65 Have knowledge of elementary first aid

KUP 66 Have knowledge of personal safety and social responsibilities

Table 2. Demographic characteristics of the respondents.

Range		Frequency	Percent
Industrial area	Shipping company	75	70.0
	Shipping management company	11	10.3
	Maritime training institute/provider	13	12.3
	Others	8	7.4
Shipping sectors	Wet Bulk (Tanker sector)	57	53.3
	Dry Bulk	8	7.4
	Cargo Liners and Container Ships	20	18.7
	Passenger Liners/Cruise Ships/Ferries	4	3.7
	Other shipping sectors	18	16.9
Year of experience	0–5 years	68	63.5
	6–10	14	13.1
	11–15	7	6.5
	+ 15 years	18	16.9

Figure 2. Research flow.

Table 3. Results from Exploratory Factor Analysis (n= 109).

No.	Competence theme	Factor description	Loading	Comm.*	Cronbach’s α
1	Position fixing & Watchkeeping	KUP 3	.800	.692	.830
		KUP 2	.743	.718
		KUP 1	.736	.705
		KUP 6	.701	.646
		KUP 15	.621	.712
		KUP 7	.593	.665
2	Inspect and report defects and damages to cargo spaces, hatch covers & ballast tanks	KUP 40	.748	.747	.849
		KUP 39	.724	.712
		KUP 41	.689	.724
		KUP 42	.672	.712
		KUP 38	.661	.600
3	Prevent, control and fight fires onboard	KUP 52	.782	.820	.829
		KUP 54	.777	.764
		KUP 53	.776	.827
		KUP 51	.620	.590
4	Contribute to safety of personnel and ship	KUP 63	.780	.683	.851
		KUP 65	.754	.735
		KUP 64	.680	.747
		KUP 66	.615	.683
5	Use of radar, ARPA and ECDIS to maintain safety of navigation	KUP 24	.798	.711	.819
		KUP 22	.738	.770
		KUP 23	.706	.675
		KUP 25	.667	.646
6	Application of leadership and teamworking skills	KUP 61	.809	.772	.823
		KUP 60	.741	.773
		KUP 58	.678	.666
		KUP 62	.629	.684
7	Ensure compliance with pollution prevention	KUP 46	.884	.853	.880
		KUP 45	.841	.832
		KUP 44	.809	.788
8	Damage control and distress communication	KUP 28	.812	.796	.753
		KUP 27	.764	.717
		KUP 29	.635	.642
9	Application of meteorological information in navigation	KUP 11	.713	.758	.758
		KUP 10	.697	.731
		KUP 9	.612	.672
10	Reporting and communication	KUP 31	.788	.782	.622
		KUP 17	.762	.723
11	Manoeuvring and maintaining seaworthiness of ship	KUP 33	.767	.774	.617
		KUP 47	.686	.789

Table 4. Reflexive indicator loadings, CR and AVE of the measurement model.

No.	Competence theme	Indicators	Loading	CR	AVE
1	Position fixing & Watchkeeping	KUP 3	.733	.853	.498
		KUP 2	.591
		KUP 1	.508
		KUP 6	.831
		KUP 15	.785
		KUP 7	.733
2	Inspect and report defects and damages to cargo spaces, hatch covers & ballast tanks	KUP 40	.841	.894	.627
		KUP 39	.747
		KUP 41	.800
		KUP 42	.821
		KUP 38	.746
3	Prevent, control and fight fires onboard	KUP 52	.884	.908	.712
		KUP 54	.869
		KUP 53	.860
		KUP 51	.757
4	Contribute to safety of personnel and ship	KUP 63	.718	.890	.670
		KUP 65	.865
		KUP 64	.874
		KUP 66	.807
5	Use of radar, ARPA and ECDIS to maintain safety of navigation	KUP 24	.820	.881	.649
		KUP 22	.828
		KUP 23	.819
		KUP 25	.753
6	Application of leadership and teamworking skills	KUP 61	.869	.879	.647
		KUP 60	.844
		KUP 58	.762
		KUP 62	.733
7	Ensure compliance with pollution prevention	KUP 46	.907	.925	.805
		KUP 45	.913
		KUP 44	.870
8	Damage control and distress communication	KUP 28	.852	.864	.679
		KUP 27	.793
		KUP 29	.826
9	Application of meteorological information in navigation	KUP 11	.878	.863	.678
		KUP 10	.816
		KUP 9	.773
10	Reporting and communication	KUP 31	.887	.842	.728
		KUP 17	.818
11	Manoeuvring and maintaining seaworthiness of ship	KUP 33	.927	.828	.709
		KUP 47	.749

Table 5. Discriminant validity

Factor	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
1	.706
2	.298	.792
3	.187	.500	.844
4	.187	.474	.597	.818
5	.366	.359	.215	.206	.806
6	.285	.454	.482	.410	.431	.804
7	.040	.337	.398	.420	.238	.355	.897
8	.230	.437	.392	.380	.378	.322	.338	.824
9	.521	.482	.306	.279	.448	.355	.191	.352	.823
10	.372	.296	.174	.215	.341	.196	.078	.350	.322	.853
11	.194	.304	.201	.160	.419	.341	.221	.279	.338	.298	.842

Figure 3. Additional technical skill relevant for autonomous operations.

Figure 4. Descriptive statistics for cognitive skills.

Figure 5. Descriptive statistics for social skills.

Figure 6. Additional non-technical skills relevant for autonomous operations.

Kim, T.-E., A. Sharma, A. H. Gausdal, and C.-J. Chae. 2019. “Impact of automation Technology on Gender Parity in Maritime Industry.” WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs 18 (4): 579–593. doi:10.1007/s13437-019-00176-w.

 Web of Science ®Google Scholar