Geomorphic coding in Palula and Kalasha

Figures & data

Table

(1)	Kalasha
	Múṭ	dúr-as	wén-aw	š-íu.
	tree	house-obl.sg	upriver-abl	be.inan-p/f.3sg.ns
	‘The tree is upriver from the house.’ (JH.fn)

Figure 1. The place of Kalasha and Palula within Indo-Iranian (the internal classification largely follows Bashir (2003, 824–825)).

Figure 2. Landscape features encoded in Palula and Kalasha.

Figure 3. Palula relational nouns in relation to slopes and the flow of streams.

Figure 4. Division of space on the river-based axis.

Figure 5. Division of space on the slope-based axis.

Map 1. The mountain region of northern Pakistan and adjacent areas of neighbouring countries. Language names occur in italics. (Map created with QGIS 2.18.4 using data provided under cc by-sa by © OpenStreetMapContributors).

Table

(2)	Palula
	Huṇḍ-íi	íṇc̣-a	ṭoóp	th-íil-i	ṭoóp
	upslope-gen	bear-obl	jump	do-pfv-f	jump
	the	be	bhun	be	dac̣h-íi…
	do.cvb	go.cvb	downslope	go.cvb	look-3sg
	‘The bear leapt downward, and after that it saw...’ (PHL-AyanMir1:050)

Table

(3)	Palula
	Yáab	ghaš-í	aǰá	gúum.
	canal	catch-cvb	upstream	go.pfv.m.sg
	‘I went up along the canal.’ (PHL-Hunter:053)

Table

(4)	Palula
	Se	dhrúuk-a=wée	dúu	míil-a	bhun	wháat-u	ma.
	def	gorge-obl=in	two	mile-pl	down	get.down.pfv-m.sg	1sg.nom
	‘I moved two kilometres down along the brook.’ (PHL-Hunter:090)

Table

(5)	Palula
	Oóra	xoneeṛí	thaní	áa	néeṛi	hín-i.
	this.side	Khoneri	quot	indf	brook	be.prs-f
	‘There is on this side [of the pass] a brook named Khoneri.’ (PHL-AcrossLowari:011)

Table

(6)	Palula
	Phar-íi	thíi	ba	míiš	yh-áaṭ-u
	yonder-gen	from	top	man	come-ag-m.sg
	bh-íl-u	hín-u.
	become-pfv-m.sg	be.prs-m.sg
	‘From the opposite side [of the pass] a man was coming.’ (PHL-Pashambi:120)

Table 1. Geomorphic relational nouns in Palula with attested derivations (B. = Biori dialect).

Reference point	Relational noun	Derivations and other attested forms (excl. case forms)
Upslope	huṇḍ	huṇḍgiraá ‘upward, uphill’, huṇṭegiráak/huṇṭráak (B.) ‘upward, uphill’, huṇḍaṛáa ‘up there’
Downslope/downstream	bhun	bhungiraá ‘downward, downhill’, bhuntegiráak/bhuntráak (B.) ‘downward, downhill’, bhunimaá ‘on the way downhill’, bhunaṛáa ‘down there’, bhunmooṣṭá ‘lowermost’
Upstream	aǰá (B. aǰé)	aǰagiraá ‘upward, aǰimaá ‘upward (along stream)’, aǰaṛáa ‘up over there’, aǰamooṣṭá ‘uppermost’
This side of boundary	oóra	no attested examples
Other side of boundary	phaár	pharagiraá ‘at some distance’, pharagiráak ‘toward that side’, pharimaá/pehrimaá ‘some ways forward, onward’, pharaṛáa ‘over there, yonder’, phaaraṛáa ‘farther yonder’, aḍaphaár ‘halfways’

Table

(7)	Palula
	Huṇḍgiraá	bi	páand	náin-i,	bhungiraá	bi
	upward	sep	path	be.not.prs-f	downward	sep

Table

	náin-i,	páand	ba	áak.
	be.not.prs-f	path	top	one
	‘There was only one path and no way to pass through, neither above nor below.’ (PHL-Sharia:027)

Table

(8)	Palula
	Karáaṛu	aǰagiraá	utrap-íl-u	hín-u.
	leopard	upward	run-pfv-m.sg	be.prs-m.sg
	‘The leopard ran away upward.’ (PHL-Katamosh:101)

Table

(9)	Palula
	Bhiúuṛi	širiaát	de	ta	aǰamooṣṭá	ghróom-a.
	Biori	legal.decision	be.pst	sub	uppermost	village-obl
	‘The case was held in the uppermost village of Biori.’ (PHL-Sharia:005)

Table

(10)	Palula
	T-áa	yhaí	ba	góo	bhraapútr
	rem-loc	come.cvb	top	where	brother’s.son

Table

	thaníit-u	ta,	bhun=a-ṛ-íi=wée	ga
	say.pfv-m.sg	sub	downslope=emph-dist-obl=in	rel

Table

	šáali	ṭópa	dít-i	šáali
	Shali	down	put.pfv-f	Shali

Table

	kh-éel-i	thaníit-u	ta.
	eat-pfv-f	say.pfv-m.sg	sub
	‘When he came there, he said, “Nephew, where [is it]?” and I said, “Down there, where it felled Shali [a goat’s name] and ate her.”’ (PHL-Pashambi:058–059)

Table 2. Geomorphic relational nouns in Kalasha.

Reference point	Relational noun	Derivations and other attested forms
Upslope	pučhúm	pučhúm ‘uphill’, pučhúma ‘far uphill’, pučhumák ‘uphill a short way’, pučhumakalía ‘uphill a very short way’
Downslope	óndru	ondruhák ‘downhill (a short way)’, ondruhakalía ‘downhill a very short way’
Upstream	wẽ-	wénaw ‘upstream’, wẽ́a ‘exactly far upstream’, wẽhák ‘a little upstream’, wẽhakalía ‘upstream a very short way’
Downstream	prẽ-	prénaw ‘downstream’, prẽa ‘exactly far downstream’, prẽhák ‘a little downstream’, prẽhakalía ‘very little downstream’
Other side of stream	páyran	payranáw ‘across stream-wards’, payranák ‘a little acrossstream’
Other side of mountain pass	payrák	payrák ‘over a mountain pass’

Table

(11)	Kalasha
	Ek	mizók	anén-aw	uṭík-i
	a	mouse	here.acr.bound.ne-abl	jump-cvb

Table

	tará	tyá-i.
	there.spec.abs	hit-cvb
	‘(As that woman was winning while playing dice), a mouse jumped from here (: an opponent’s sleeves; [narrator is pointing at her sleeve]), hitting there (: on the playing board) (and spoils the game).’ (Ba.te.516)

Table

(12)	Kalasha
	Brụ̃́a	pi	tíčak	wẽ=hák	Batrík
	Brun	from	a.little	upriver=dim	Batrik

Table

	š-íu,	Tsatrumagróm	w ẽ́ -a.
	be.inan-p/f.3sg.ns	Nuristani.village	upriver-loc
	‘Batrik is a little bit upriver from Brun, the Nuristani village (is) far upriver (from Brun).’ (GK.me.0117)

Table

(13)	Kalasha
	Krạkạ́-ei	pi	wẽ́ -a	pá-i=o
	Kraka-abl	from	upriver-loc	go-cvb=top

Table

	Tsatrumagróm.
	Nuristani.village
	‘Having gone far upriver from Kraka, (we have the) Nuristani village.’ (GK04.6.30)

Table

(14)	Kalasha
	Krạkạ́-ei	wén-aw	Tsatrumagróm	š-íu.
	Kraka-abl	upriver-abl	Nuristani.village	be.inan-p/f.3sg.ns
	‘The Nuristani village is upriver from Kraka’ (GK04.7.11)

Table

	adrák-aw.
	forest-abl
	‘The stream comes from high up there, from the forest.’ (GK04.7.121)

Table

(16)	Kalasha
	Gambák	pučhúm-a	Biríu	hátya	par-ín.
	Gambak	uphill-loc	Biriu	towards	go-p/f.3pl.ns
	‘Gambak, far uphill, goes towards Biriu.’ (Na04.5.74)

Map 2. Southern Chitral displaying the locations of Kalasha and Palula settlements. (Map created with QGIS 2.18.4 using data provided under cc by-sa by © OpenStreetMapContributors).

Table

(17)	Kalasha
	Ek	phond	pučhum=ák	par-íu	day.
	a	path	uphill=dim	go-p/f.3sg	spec
	‘(Near her house,) a path goes a little uphill (to Khan’s house).’ (GK04.16.72)

Table

(18)	Kalasha
	A	wats	wá-una	ḍúḍ-im	ghõy
	1.sg	dangerous	place-loc	sleep-p/f.1sg.ns	quot

Table

	čít-iu	tíčak	pučhúm	kẽ́s-as
	think-p/f.3sg.ns	a.little	uphill	move-imp.2sg

Table

	ghṍ-i	á-au.
	speak-cvb	aux-p/f.3sg.ns
	‘“I sleep at a dangerous place,” he thinks, “move a little uphill”, he says.’ (Er04.72)

Table

(19)	Kalasha
	Góṣṭ-an	undru=hák	nọ́-aw	day
	stable-obl.pl	downhill=dim	below-abl	abl

Table

	dukán	sarák	že	uk	ší-an.
	shop	road	and	water	be.inan-p/f.3pl.ns
	‘Downhill, below-wards, there are the shops, the road and the water.’ (Na04.14.128)

Table

(20)	Kalasha
	Tóa	páɫ-i	kakbóy	ógaɫa	kay
	then	fall-cvb	snow.leopard	far.downhill	at

Table

	pạ́-u,
	hit.pst.a-3sg
	‘Then, as he fell, the snow leopard hit (the ground) far downhill, (and then he died).’ (Er04.90)

Table

(21)	Kalasha
	Se	bihóṭ-i	par-áw/á-au.
	3sg.rem.dir	cross.over-cvb	go-pst.a.3sg / be.anim-p/f.3sg.ns
	‘He went/is across the mountain.’ (JH.fn; TC99)

Table 3. Palula motion verbs and their semantic specifications. The citation forms of the verbs are fut.3sg, following the conventions of Liljegren and Haider (2011).

	Orientation	Direction	Causative derivation
bíi		away from
yhíi		toward
whíi	downstream (downhill)		whaalíi
ukhíi	upstream		uk(u)aalíi
ṣáača	uphill
láanga	across boundary	away from	langóo
phéda	across boundary	toward	phedóo
nikhíi	in-to-out
áača	out-to-in

Table

(22)	Palula
	Ṣač-í	huṇḍ	áa	zhay-í	áa
	climb-cvb	up.above	indf	place-obl	indf

Table

	ɣar-í	ukháat-a	ta…
	peak-obl	get.up.pfv-m.pl	sub
	‘When we had climbed up to the top…’ (PHL-GhaziSamad:008)

Table

	a-n-í	lhoiliḍab-í	šíli
	emph-prox-obl	Lhoylidab-obl	wild.herbs

Table

	ghin-í	whéet-im	ta,
	take-cvb	get.down.pfv-f.pl	sub

Table

	ee-t-áa	ugheeṇíi-a	bheš-í	de.
	emph-rem-loc	Pashtun-pl	sit.down-cvb	pst
	‘When the women who were collecting wild herbs [growing in the hills] got down to Lhoylidab, the Pashtuns were sitting there.’ (PHL-BezatKhan:019)

Table

(24)	Palula
	Kareé	ukháat-u ?
	when	get.up.pfv-m.sg
	‘When did you arrive?’ [From down-country Peshawar to Ashret in Chitral.] (PHL-EliA:HL2850)

Table

(25)	Palula
	Dhrṹũṣ-a	the	ukh-áand-u .
	Drosh-obl	to	get.up-prs-m.sg
	‘I’m going to Drosh.’ [Uttered in Ashret while going to Drosh, situated upstream in the main Chitral-Kunar Valley.] (PHL-EliA:HL2964)

Table

(26)	Palula
	T-íi	ǰhulí	póo	d-aini-eé	nagaršaá
	rem-obl	on	step	put-vn-incl	Nagar.Shah

Table

	xabaár	bhe	maníit-u	ki
	informed	become.cvb	say.pfv-m.sg	comp

Table

	l-o	koó	síiw-a	pharé	lang-áan-a?
	dist-m.sg.nom	who	bridge-obl	along	cross-prs-m.pl
	‘As soon as she stepped on the bridge, Nagar Shah got to know, and said, “Who is crossing the bridge?”’ (PHL-MachokeNadir:026)

Table

(27)	Palula
	Kaaṭarghaá=wee	aakatí	kasaán
	Katargha=down.into	some	people

Table

	nikháat-a,	giḍ-á	dúšii	thíi.
	get.out.pfv-m.pl	Damel-obl	direction.gen	from
	‘In Katargha a few people appeared to come down from the Damel side.’ (PHL-JangibazKhan:043)

Table

(28)	Palula
	Zaahid-á	búuḍ-i	kúṛi	háat-ii	ghaš-í
	Zahid-obl	old-f	woman	hand-gen	hold-cvb

Table

	t-as	phaár	langée-l-i .
	rem-acc	yonder	take.across-pfv-f
	‘Zahid took the old woman by the hand and led her across.’ (Liljegren and Haider 2011, 117)

Table

(29)	Kalasha
	Khur	pastár-i	á-au	gaw
	leg	stretch.out-cvb	aux-p/f.3sg.ns	cowhide

Table

	át-au	undru=hák	páɫ-i
	fall.pst.a-3sg	downslope=dim	fall-cvb

Table

	dariá-una	pạ́-u.
	river-loc	hit.pst.a-3sg
	‘As (he) stretched out his legs [in his hide in a tree], the cowhide fell, falling down the slope, it hit (: fell into) the river.’ (KK05.27)

Table

(30)	Kalasha
	Súri	čhak	dyá-i,	bihóṭ-au .
	sun	shadow	set-cvb	cross.mountain-pst.a.3sg
	‘The sun, casting shadow, set.’ (Lit. ‘crossed the moutain ridge’) (Trail and Cooper 1999)

Table

(31)	Kalasha
	A	uk	a-wáz-au	síɫ-una	day.
	1sg.dir	water	pst-cross-pst.a.3sg	bridge-loc	along
	‘I crossed the river by way of the bridge.’ (Na.me.16)

Bashir, Elena. 2003. “Dardic.” In The Indo-Aryan Languages, edited by George Cardona and Danesh Jain, 818–894. London: Routledge.

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Liljegren, Henrik, and Naseem Haider. 2011. Palula Vocabulary (FLI Language and Culture Series 7). Islamabad: Forum for Language Initiatives.

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Trail, Ronald L., and Gregory R. Cooper. 1999. Kalasha Dictionary: With English and Urdu (Studies in Languages of Northern Pakistan, 7). Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies and Summer Institute of Linguistics.

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