Food consumption patterns, seasonality and market access in Mozambique

Figures & data

Table 1: OLS coefficient estimates of monthly dummy variables by region

	Rural			Urban
Dep. variable	Log consumption	Log total food	Food share	Log consumption	Log total food	Food share
January	− 0.020	− 0.093	− 0.018	− 0.082	− 0.072	0.023
February	− 0.126	− 0.201	− 0.014	0.098	− 0.075	− 0.051
March	− 0.121	− 0.184	0.007	0.073	− 0.156	− 0.053
April	− 0.173	− 0.305	− 0.005	− 0.101	− 0.259	− 0.006
May	− 0.036	− 0.048	0.009	0.104	0.033	− 0.033
June	− 0.078	− 0.146	− 0.015	− 0.009	− 0.005	0.014
July	− 0.201	− 0.303	− 0.038	0.203	0.092	− 0.042
August	− 0.134	− 0.202	− 0.025	0.514	0.350	− 0.054
September	− 0.049	− 0.118	− 0.026	− 0.290	− 0.291	− 0.014
October	− 0.090	− 0.079	0.017	− 0.387	− 0.457	− 0.039
November	− 0.002	0.012	0.019	− 0.074	− 0.060	0.006
December (constant)	11.862	11.641	0.592	12.389	12.269	0.570
F-test for months	1.45	2.72	1.91	4.05	4.37	3.45
P-value	(0.15)	(0.00)	(0.04)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.00)
Observations	5811			2439
Note: Only provincial dummies included as controls. OLS regression estimates of the dependent variable named at the top of the column. Provincial dummy variables included in the regression but not reported. Coefficients with statistically significant (at 5%) t-statistics in bold type.

Table 2: Staple food and total food shares, as percentage of total budget, by season (means)

	Rural			Urban
	Jan–April	May–Aug	Sept–Dec	Jan–April	May–Aug	Sept–Dec
Cereal	0.334	0.331	0.274	0.392	0.328	0.400
Maize only	0.233	0.252	0.198	0.215	0.155	0.110
Roots and tubers	0.136	0.141	0.199	0.063	0.107	0.052
Cassava only	0.126	0.114	0.171	0.042	0.088	0.040
Total food share	0.689	0.679	0.702	0.602	0.603	0.590

Figure 1: Seasonal total expenditure food elasticity

Figure 2: Rural seasonality effects for cereal and tubers

Figure 3: Urban seasonality effects for cereal and tubers

Figure 4: Rural seasonality effects for legumes and vegetables

Figure 5: Urban seasonality effects for legumes and vegetables

Table 3: Total expenditure elasticity by quintile

	Rural			Urban
	Bottom quintile	All	Top quintile	Bottom quintile	All	Top quintile
Total food	1.072	1.000	0.914	0.999	0.912	0.803
Cereals	1.287	1.072	0.814	0.983	0.836	0.592
Maize	1.217	0.994	0.655	0.745	0.692	0.465
Roots and tubers	0.994	0.833	0.603	1.025	0.936	0.738
Cassava	0.975	0.817	0.592	0.978	0.885	0.526
Meat	1.589	1.379	1.248	2.240	1.592	1.334
Seafood	1.044	1.035	1.026	1.003	0.933	0.841
Beans	0.458	0.656	0.974	0.831	0.770	0.558
Fruit	1.172	1.080	1.104	0.944	0.835	0.670
Green vegetables	0.829	0.827	0.837	0.697	0.668	0.625
Other foods	1.418	1.176	1.243	1.345	1.106	0.969
Note: Elasticity is calculated using the formula provided in the text, the coefficient estimates based on equation 1, and the relevant means. Provincial and monthly dummy variables included in the model.

Table 4: Total expenditure elasticity by region

	Rural			Urban
	North	Centre	South	North	Centre	South
Total food	0.985	1.002	1.003	0.946	0.928	0.899
Cereals	1.031	1.075	1.076	0.885	0.870	0.819
Maize	0.934	1.002	1.003	0.769	0.774	0.335
Roots and tubers	0.850	0.796	0.806	0.987	0.908	0.850
Cassava	0.854	0.740	0.779	0.965	0.526	0.647
Meat	1.498	1.268	1.937	1.745	1.559	1.517
Seafood	1.028	1.034	1.088	0.964	0.957	0.890
Beans	0.791	0.538	0.573	0.847	0.776	0.648
Fruit	1.242	1.164	1.073	0.826	0.865	0.847
Green vegetables	0.833	0.818	0.845	0.679	0.631	0.652
Other foods	1.315	1.381	1.248	1.289	1.136	1.068
Note: Elasticity is calculated using the formula provided in the text, the coefficient estimates based on equation 1, and the relevant means. Quarterly seasonal dummy variables were included in the estimated model.

Figure 6: Change in budget share (trimester 3 minus trimester 1) by distance to road for tubers and cereals

Figure 7: Change in budget share (trimester 3 minus trimester 1) by distance to road for cassava and maize

Figure 8: Change in budget share (trimester 3 minus trimester 1) by distance to road for beans and vegetables

Table A1: Month of interview in IAF

Month of interview	Urban	Rural
January	262	480
February	317	501
March	478	416
April	259	570
May	340	428
June	297	435
July	114	600
August	98	253
September	79	599
October	71	511
November	74	522
December	113	433
Total	2502	5748

Table A2: Estimates of seasonality in total expenditure elasticity for food

	Rural	Urban
January	0.888	0.905
February	0.844	0.819
March	1.032	0.756
April	0.955	0.776
May	1.000	0.833
June	0.901	0.711
July	0.944	0.736
August	0.865	0.664
September	0.902	0.780
October	0.917	0.838
November	0.880	0.760
December	0.904	0.865
R^2	85.36	80.34
F (regression)	370	369
P-value	0.00	0.00
F (months)	2.46	2.75
P-value	0.01	0.00
F (interaction)	2.47	2.67
P-value	0.01	0.00
Observations	5811	2439
Note: Double logarithmic OLS regression of log total expenditure per capita on log food expenditure. The seasonal (monthly) elasticity is estimated by interacting log consumption with the monthly dummy. Control variables included in regression are six demographic groups and provincial dummies. Coefficients in bold are those whose t-statistics are significantly different from 0 at 5 per cent.

Table A3: Seasonality effects on budget share of cereals and tubers by region

	Rural		Urban
	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)
	Cereals	Roots and tubers	Cereals	Roots and tubers
January	− 0.044	− 0.023	− 0.010	0.012
	(0.71)	(0.62)	(0.23)	(0.27)
February	0.026	− 0.079	0.041	− 0.025
	(0.40)	(2.45)	(1.14)	(0.61)
March	0.000	− 0.022	0.003	− 0.027
	(0.00)	(0.65)	(0.09)	(0.68)
April	0.033	− 0.067	− 0.005	− 0.045
	(0.93)	(2.67)	(0.14)	(1.13)
May	0.024	− 0.050	− 0.013	− 0.025
	(0.66)	(2.19)	(0.35)	(0.54)
June	0.019	− 0.019	− 0.016	0.001
	(0.47)	(0.67)	(0.44)	(0.03)
July	0.030	− 0.054	0.023	− 0.035
	(0.74)	(2.11)	(0.64)	(0.84)
August	0.021	− 0.028	− 0.009	− 0.008
	(0.38)	(0.69)	(0.29)	(0.22)
September	− 0.018	− 0.019	0.054	− 0.037
	(0.55)	(0.79)	(1.44)	(1.05)
October	− 0.006	0.013	0.073	− 0.041
	(0.17)	(0.53)	(2.42)	(1.16)
November	− 0.008	0.034	0.031	− 0.035
	(0.20)	(1.21)	(0.99)	(0.99)
Constant	− 3.860	− 0.666	− 2.167	0.558
	(4.27)	(1.77)	(3.58)	(1.56)
R^2	13.71	21.02	13.29	18.55
F (months)	0.77	3.56	7.48	2.54
P-value for joint F-test	0.67	0.00	0.00	0.00
Observations	5811		2439
Note: OLS coefficient estimates of equation 1. Absolute value of Z-statistics in parentheses. Results for other variables included in the regression are available from the authors.

Table A4: Seasonality effects on budget shares of food groups – rural

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
	Meats	Fish and seafood	Legumes	Fruit	Green vegetables	Other foods
January	− 0.033	− 0.017	− 0.029	0.018	0.064	0.065
	(1.90)	(0.61)	(1.60)	(0.77)	(1.47)	(3.12)
February	− 0.045	− 0.017	− 0.022	− 0.044	0.119	0.062
	(2.87)	(0.61)	(1.44)	(2.67)	(2.47)	(3.31)
March	− 0.058	− 0.016	− 0.024	− 0.040	0.111	0.048
	(3.97)	(0.62)	(1.55)	(2.41)	(2.60)	(2.13)
April	− 0.045	− 0.008	− 0.017	− 0.036	0.090	0.051
	(4.51)	(0.39)	(1.41)	(2.73)	(3.08)	(3.42)
May	− 0.039	− 0.012	0.005	− 0.048	0.091	0.028
	(4.37)	(0.37)	(0.30)	(3.35)	(3.51)	(2.58)
June	0.000	0.019	0.007	− 0.026	− 0.022	0.023
	(0.02)	(0.64)	(0.51)	(1.40)	(1.11)	(1.82)
July	0.002	− 0.032	0.025	− 0.039	0.047	0.021
	(0.23)	(1.18)	(1.93)	(2.61)	(2.37)	(1.49)
August	− 0.007	− 0.025	0.017	− 0.034	0.037	0.020
	(0.40)	(1.08)	(1.07)	(2.06)	(1.51)	(1.44)
September	0.019	− 0.020	0.035	− 0.034	0.018	0.019
	(1.18)	(0.82)	(2.41)	(2.30)	(0.85)	(1.91)
October	− 0.015	− 0.026	0.038	− 0.028	0.013	0.010
	(1.37)	(1.20)	(2.13)	(2.01)	(0.64)	(0.90)
November	0.002	− 0.025	0.020	− 0.021	− 0.005	0.003
	(0.13)	(1.07)	(1.44)	(1.40)	(0.21)	(0.30)
Constant	− 0.286	0.526	2.127	0.007	2.050	0.367
	(5.77)	(0.98)	(3.55)	(0.16)	(3.22)	(0.83)
R^2	10.91	14.19	13.63	27.39	18.76	12.27
F (months)	5.73	0.58	3.21	2.16	4.00	2.06
P-value for joint F-test	0.00	0.85	0.00	0.02	0.00	0.02
Note: OLS coefficient estimates of equation 1, with absolute t-values given in parenthesis. Results for other variables included in the model available from the authors; 5 811 observations.

Table A5: Seasonality effects on budget shares of food groups – urban

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
	Meats	Fish and seafood	Legumes	Fruit	Green vegetables	Other foods
January	0.000	− 0.003	− 0.017	− 0.009	0.018	0.016
	(0.01)	(0.16)	(1.36)	(0.68)	(0.92)	(0.80)
February	− 0.029	0.042	− 0.016	− 0.006	0.000	− 0.002
	(1.28)	(3.12)	(1.40)	(0.52)	(0.03)	(0.12)
March	− 0.020	0.027	0.000	− 0.004	0.026	0.001
	(0.92)	(3.04)	(0.05)	(0.40)	(1.77)	(0.06)
April	− 0.010	0.036	0.013	− 0.011	0.017	0.010
	(0.44)	(3.56)	(2.03)	(1.10)	(1.18)	(0.63)
May	− 0.037	0.034	0.022	− 0.002	0.027	0.000
	(1.60)	(3.27)	(3.08)	(0.19)	(1.96)	(0.03)
June	− 0.019	0.024	0.026	− 0.005	0.001	− 0.011
	(0.86)	(2.16)	(3.22)	(0.47)	(0.07)	(0.70)
July	− 0.015	0.011	0.017	− 0.010	0.015	− 0.004
	(0.64)	(1.30)	(2.42)	(0.98)	(1.32)	(0.21)
August	− 0.011	0.034	0.007	− 0.008	0.016	− 0.010
	(0.54)	(3.86)	(1.16)	(0.88)	(1.76)	(0.53)
September	− 0.048	0.001	0.014	0.008	0.023	− 0.016
	(2.32)	(0.10)	(2.10)	(0.49)	(1.94)	(0.63)
October	− 0.057	0.001	0.026	− 0.013	0.010	0.001
	(2.76)	(0.05)	(2.91)	(1.44)	(0.79)	(0.08)
November	− 0.036	0.010	0.021	− 0.010	0.026	− 0.007
	(1.48)	(1.45)	(2.65)	(1.08)	(1.98)	(0.43)
Constant	− 0.557	0.270	0.381	0.070	1.568	− 0.481
	(9.08)	(0.66)	(1.45)	(3.14)	(5.17)	(1.21)
R-Squared	21.41	18.72	23.53	14.05	16.66	12.27
F(months)	5.85	4.74	3.51	2.16	1.12	0.73
p-value for joint F-test	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.02	0.35	0.71
Note: OLS coefficient estimates of month dummy variables from equation 1, with absolute t-statistics in parenthesis. Models include all control variables mentioned in text; full results available from the authors upon request; 2 439 observations.

Table A6: Coefficient estimate for ‘lean season’ dummy variable by distance to nearest road

Dependent variable
Distance (km)	Maize	Cassava	Cereals	Tubers	Legumes	Vegetables	Obs
0–2	0.062	− 0.023	0.042	− 0.028	0.037	− 0.065	567
	(1.51)	(0.80)	(1.10)	(1.00)	(2.24)	(1.37)
> 2	− 0.046	0.044	− 0.036	0.070	0.047	− 0.098	5181
	(1.78)	(2.99)	(1.22)	(4.59)	(4.87)	(3.62)
> 3	− 0.060	0.055	− 0.053	0.083	0.049	− 0.098	4913
	(2.16)	(3.89)	(1.62)	(5.58)	(4.87)	(3.41)
> 5	− 0.077	0.063	− 0.067	0.091	0.048	− 0.100	4475
	(2.76)	(4.46)	(2.02)	(6.33)	(4.40)	(3.22)
> 6	− 0.078	0.063	− 0.073	0.091	0.048	− 0.090	4385
	(2.79)	(4.27)	(2.13)	(6.23)	(4.16)	(2.86)
> 8	− 0.082	0.069	− 0.083	0.098	0.056	− 0.099	4053
	(2.77)	(4.52)	(2.32)	(6.38)	(4.56)	(2.96)
> 12	− 0.079	0.069	− 0.091	0.099	0.052	− 0.099	3614
	(2.39)	(4.21)	(2.21)	(5.93)	(3.74)	(2.51)
> 16	− 0.076	0.069	− 0.090	0.100	0.050	− 0.100	3335
	(2.20)	(4.25)	(2.16)	(5.98)	(3.68)	(2.59)
> 20	− 0.070	0.067	− 0.086	0.100	0.050	− 0.098	3083
	(2.00)	(4.36)	(2.04)	(6.13)	(3.67)	(2.55)
> 24	− 0.074	0.060	− 0.091	0.093	0.047	− 0.083	2831
	(2.13)	(4.35)	(2.13)	(5.95)	(3.43)	(2.71)
Note: Numbers are coefficient estimates of the dummy variable indicating trimester 3, derived from Engel curves estimated on subsamples of households defined by distance to the nearest road. The excluded category is trimester 1. Subsamples are defined in the first column on the left, and number of households in subsample given in the last column on the right. t-Statistics below coefficient estimates. Full results available from the authors upon request.