Pesticide use among emerging farmers in South Africa: contributing factors and stakeholder perspectives

Figures & data

Table 1: Legislation affecting pesticides in South Africa

Figure 1: Conceptual model: contextual indicators for new pesticide users

Table 2: Geographical distribution of respondents

Province	Number of respondents
Gauteng	9
Western Cape (WC)	5
KwaZulu-Natal (KZN)	3
North West (NW)	3
Limpopo	2
Free State (FS)	2
Eastern Cape (EC)	2
Mpumalanga	2
Northern Cape (NC)	1
Botswana (Southern African Development Community representative)	1
Total	30

Table 3: Organisations represented by respondents

Organisation	Number of respondents
Provincial Departments of Agriculture	6
Academic and research institutions	5
Civil society	5
Extension officers	4
Industry	3
Organised agriculture	3
Avcasa^a	1
Retail	1
National Department of Agriculture	1
Regional and international institutions	1
Total	30
^aAvcasa is the Crop Protection and Animal Health Association of South Africa, more recently referred to as Crop Life South Africa.

Table 4: Categories of information solicited from all respondents

1. Defining subsistence, emerging, emerging commercial and commercial farmers

2. Identifying factors determining whether a farmer is emerging or not

3. Provincial location of emerging farmers

4. Stakeholder institutional work/support for emerging farmers

5. Government policy for emerging farmers

6. Pesticide use among emerging farmers

7. Credit and support for emerging farmers

8. Export market access by emerging farmers

9. Main problems faced by emerging farmers

Table 5: Summary of key policies affecting South African agriculture

Policy	Description
Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) document, 1994	Aimed to transform rural areas through a land reform programme that would be the centrepiece of a wider process of rural development. It encouraged commitment by donor organisations and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as well as the private sector, and aimed to redistribute 30 per cent of commercial farmland to emerging black farmers.
RDP White Paper, 1995	Sets out initial government plans to focus on poverty and inequality by encouraging sustainable economic growth. Indicates how business, unions, community groups and civic associations, NGOs, women's and youth organisations, and other civil society groups can help realise the objectives of the RDP.
Agricultural White Paper, 1995	Aimed at ensuring equitable access to agriculture and promotes the contribution of agriculture to the development of all communities, society at large and the national economy, in order to enhance income, food security, employment and quality of life in a sustainable manner. Makes provision for agricultural production and marketing, the sustainable use of natural resources, agricultural financing, institutional infrastructure, and access to information and agricultural technology, research and training.
Marketing of Agricultural Products Act, 47 of 1996	Established the National Agricultural Marketing Council, deregulated control boards (completed by 1998), and set out a vision of trade liberalisation and improved domestic and international market access for all farmers.
White Paper on Land Policy, 1997	Sets out a three-pronged programme of land reform, including restitution of land rights to those dispossessed of land since 1913, redistribution of land to the landless and poor in order to achieve a more equitable distribution, and land tenure reform, to secure the rights of those living on land owned by others, notably farm workers on commercial farms and residents of communal areas in the former ‘homelands’. Provides for settlement/land acquisition grants of R16 000 to be made available to eligible households earning less than R1500 per month, in order to invest in the purchase of land for settlement (housing), agricultural or other purposes.
Discussion Document on Agricultural Policy, 1998	Aims to create an environment where higher incomes and employment are possible for resource-poor farmers alongside a thriving commercial farming sector. Supports the emergence of a more diverse structure of production with a large increase in the numbers of successful smallholder farming enterprises.
The Land and Agricultural Development Bank Act, 2000	Introduces a new ‘developmental’ mandate for the Land Bank, requires it to prioritise loan finance to disadvantaged clients and to operate on a self-sustaining basis, without recourse to annual budgetary support from government.
The Strategic Plan for South African Agriculture, 2001	A plan developed by the Presidential working group on agriculture, with representation from black and white commercial farmer organisations (AgriSA and NAFU). Sets out a policy and implementation framework within which the agricultural sector is to be shaped. It addresses investor apprehension and global competitiveness, encourages building partnerships between NGOs and the public, private and community sectors. Consists of three core strategies – equitable access and participation, global competitiveness and profitability, and sustainable resource management for agriculture.
Vision and Code of Conduct for Labour Relations in Agriculture, 2001	An agreement between organised agriculture (AgriSA and NAFU), labour unions and the Department of Labour, pledging adherence to labour laws, and agreeing to certain additional conditions.
The Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Programme, 2001	Sets out a vision of development through service provision and infrastructure development in the rural areas. Although the transformation of agriculture is not central to it, it envisages support for agricultural production and marketing, the sustainable use of natural resources, agricultural financing, institutional infrastructure, and access to information and agricultural technology, research and training.
The Land Redistribution for Agricultural Development programme (LRAD), 2001	Provides grants to previously disadvantaged South African citizens to access land specifically for farming purposes. As part of the land redistribution programme, it makes grants available to all black South Africans to assist with land purchase, ranging in size from R20 000 to R100 000 per individual applicant.
Sectoral Determination for Agriculture, 2002	Regulates minimum wages and conditions of employment for workers in agriculture, and came into effect in 2003 as a regulation in terms of the Basic Conditions of Employment Act 75 of 1997. In view of the challenges facing small and new enterprises, it grants exemption from the minimum wages to enterprises employing fewer than five full-time permanent employees. It further prohibits youth (below 18 years) from working with agro-chemicals, even if the prescribed protective clothing is available.
The Comprehensive Agriculture Support Programme, 2004	Post-settlement support for beneficiaries of LRAD. Support with information, management, advisory and regulatory services, training and capacity building, finance and on-farm and off-farm infrastructure.
Agricultural Broad-based Black Economic Empowerment (AgriBee), 2005	A framework to address inequities and establish scorecards for transformation in ownership, management and procurement in the farming sector. A final scorecard against which the established agricultural industry will be rated for AgriBee compliance was still being developed as at the end of 2006.
Micro-Agricultural Finance Schemes of South Africa, 2005	Micro-credit lending scheme launched in 2005 to provide loan finance to emerging farmers for capital and non-capital costs, and administered by the Land Bank.
Strategic Plan for Department of Agriculture, 2007	Ensures participation of emerging farmers in biofuel programme. Promotes partnerships between agricultural enterprises, emerging farmers and entrepreneurs. Promotes commercial viability of emerging farmers through a farmer-to-farmer mentorship programme. Promotes skills development as part of the Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative of South Africa for emerging farmers through training and commodity-directed mentorship. Strengthens capacity of good agricultural practice for emerging farmers through the South African Pesticide Initiative Programme for export potential. Provides training in responsible pesticide use and integration of emerging farmers into existing grower associations.

Table 6: Support and training for emerging farmers, as identified by respondents

Institution	Type of support and training provided
DoA LandCare programme	Community-based and government-supported approach for agricultural resource conservation and promotion of poverty alleviation through labour-intensive public works
FARM-Africa	Training in crop production and livestock management, focused in the Northern Cape
Land Bank Social Discount Product	White farmers with specialised skills receive low interest finance for mentoring black farmers
Agricultural Research Council	Training provided, particularly at key Agricultural Research Council colleges such as Cedara (KwaZulu-Natal) and Elsenberg (Western Cape). Focus on training in the major production sectors – horticulture, field crops and livestock husbandry – as well as on pest control and business management
South African Agricultural Academy	General capacity-building and training
Rainman Landcare Foundation	Soil fertility, pest control, livestock production, book-keeping and marketing
Buhle Farmers' Academy	Farm business management skills, communication, environmental awareness
Outeniqua Experimental Farm	Entrepreneurial skills, vegetable farming, irrigation, farm and financial management, marketing, poultry, life skills, welding, tractor maintenance, spraying
Avcasa	Train-the-trainer programme on pesticides for emerging farmers
South African Pesticide Initiative Programme	Industry based training on pesticides for emerging farmers to comply with local and European Union regulations for export

Table 7: Respondents' perceptions of pesticide use intensity among emerging farmers

Use pattern	Number of respondents
Minimal (i.e. 1–2 times per year)	15
Once a month	4
Weekly	1
Extensive (i.e. 1–5 times per week per crop)	3
Following an industry structured spraying programme	3
Don't know	3
Total	29

Table 8: World Health Organization (WHO) toxicity classification of pesticides used by study farmers (see Box 1)

Trade name	Active ingredient	Pesticide class	WHO classification^a
Bullock	Beta-cyfluthion	Pyrethrum	II
Decis	Deltamethrin	Pyrethrum	II
Ripcord	Cypermethrin	Pyrethrum	II
Dursban	Chlorpyrifos	Organophosphate	II
Mercaptothian	Mercaptothian	Organophosphate	II
Nemacur	Fenamiphos	Organophosphate	Ib
Tamaron	Methamidophos	Organophosphate	Ib
Tokuthion	Prothiofos	Organophosphate	II
Lebaycid	Fenthion	Organophosphate	II
Dithane	Mancozeb	Dithiocarbamate	U
Milraz Propines	Cymoxanil	Dithiocarbamate, acetamide derivative	U, III
Folicur	Tebuconazole	Organonitrogen	III
Koper-chlor	Copper oxychloride	Inorganic copper salt	III
Koppersprey	Copper oxychloride	Inorganic copper salt	III
Nimrod	Bupirimate	Pyrimidane	U
Rosecare	Triforine, pirimicarb and bupirimate	Formamide derivative, carbamate and pyrimidine	U, II &U
Round Up	Glyphosate	Glycine derivative	U
Temik	Aldicarb	Carbamate	Ia
Kumulus DF	Sulphur	Sulphide	U
^aIa = extremely hazardous; Ib = highly hazardous; II = moderately hazardous; III = slightly hazardous; U =  unlikely to present acute hazard in normal use.

Table 9: Respondents' views on key problems facing emerging farmers

Problem area	Details and examples	Number of responses
Finance	Lack of access to credit, high cost of farming inputs, and onerous taxation	15
Skills	Lack of knowledge, organisational management and farm business management skills	14
Markets	Lack of information on markets, volatile markets, and downward pressure on prices from imports and dumping	10
Farming practices	Lack of use of technology, pest and disease problems, scarcity of water, producing the ‘right’ crop for the right market, producing good quality crops	9
Inputs	Lack of, or high cost of, implements, seed, fertilizer and pesticides	8
Support	Lack of extension services, or inappropriate services not geared to emerging farmer needs	7
Land	Insufficient land, insecure tenure to land, or access only to degraded land	5
Expectations	Misperception of the realities of farming, or lack of responsibility, ambition and commitment to farming	5
Risk management	Lacking in assessing and managing farming risks, thefts, lack of insurance	5