Fathers' whereabouts and children's welfare in Malawi

Figures & data

Table 1: Distribution of children by parental co-residence and orphanhood (n = 57 156), Malawi 2010

	Mother's status
Father's status	Mother in household	Mother alive, not in household	Mother deceased	Total
Father in household	Category 1, 59.6%	Category 2, 1.5%	Category 3, 0.5%	61.6%
Father alive, not in household	Category 4, 17.3%	Category 5, 10.8%	Category 6, 1.8%	29.9%
Father deceased	Category 7, 4.6%	Category 8, 1.9%	Category 9, 2.0%	8.5%
Total	81.6%	14.2%	4.2%	100.0%

Note: Percentages are weighted to account for regional variation in sampling ratios.

Table 2: Classification of children by paternal co-residence status (n=42 987), Malawi 2010, descriptive statistics

	Size of group		Average values
	n	%	Age of child (years)	Household wealth (1 to 5)^a	Mother's educational attainment (years)	Number of children (age <15) in household	Proportion rural (%)
Father in household	34 178	79.3	6.0	3.0	4.3	3.6	85
Father migrant	2 281	5.4	4.9	3.1	5.3	3.5	88
Parents divorced	3 861	9.1	6.0	2.3	4.2	3.5	90
Father deceased	2 667	6.2	8.8	2.5	3.8	3.4	88
Total^b	42 987	100.0

Notes: ^aHousehold wealth is measured on a scale where 1 = poorest quintile and 5 = wealthiest quintile. Wealth is estimated by means of a household assets index. Percentages are weighted to account for regional variation in sampling ratios. ^b Excluding 14 169 children in the total sample that do not belong to any of the four categories listed.

Table 3: Exposure to welfare disadvantages, by paternal co-residence status, Malawi 2010, descriptive statistics (n = 42 987)

	Paternal co-residence status (%)
Welfare disadvantages	Father present	Father migrant	Parents divorced	Father deceased	Total (%)	n
Ages 0 to 4
Non-use of mosquito net	48.6	60.6	64.0	63.7	51.2	17 341
Too thin (–1SD)	31.4	23.4	46.3	44.0	32.0	2 134
Diarrhoea	17.9	17.2	18.7	20.2	18.0	16 486
Coughing	29.4	28.2	27.8	25.2	29.1	16 436
Fever	34.7	36.7	38.6	33.6	35.2	16 490
n	14 159	1 186	1 594	402	17 341
Ages 5 to 14
Non-use of mosquito net	70.0	68.3	75.4	81.3	71.4	25 646
Non-attendance at school^a	11.0	9.0	13.6	12.0	11.2	22 547
Fewer than two meals yesterday	6.8	7.9	13.4	12.5	7.9	25 646
No pair of shoes	35.4	31.0	54.5	58.5	39.0	25 281
Fewer than two sets of clothes	7.8	8.3	15.4	16.9	9.3	25 273
n	20 019	1 095	2 267	2 265	25 646

Notes: Percentages are weighted to account for regional variation in sampling ratios. SD, standard deviation. ^aAges 6 to 14.

Table 4: Odds ratio estimates for selected disadvantages, not controlling for household wealth, Malawi 2010: younger children (ages 0 to 4)

	Non-use of mosquito net	Too thin (–1 SD)	Fever	Diarrhoea	Coughing
Control variables
Age	1.12***	1.13***	0.90***	0.65***	0.91***
Sex (female)	0.97	0.89	0.93**	0.96	1.00
Residence (rural)	1.38***	1.59***	1.29***	1.00	1.18***
Northern region^a	1.11**	1.05	0.72***	0.79***	1.48***
Central region^a	1.08**	1.00	1.32***	1.31***	1.36***
Mother's education	0.93***	0.97**	1.00	0.99*	1.02***
Children in household	1.06***	1.14***	0.96***	0.94***	1.00
Paternal co-residence status
Father present^b
Father migrant	1.63***	0.70	1.12*	0.92	0.94
Parents divorced	1.89***	1.77***	1.21***	1.14*	1.10
Father deceased	1.83***	1.71	1.23*	1.40**	0.92
Father migrant^b
Father present	0.62***	1.44	0.90*	1.08	1.06
Parents divorced	1.16*	2.54***	1.09	1.23*	1.17*
Father deceased	1.13	2.45**	1.11	1.51***	0.98
Parents divorced^b
Father present	0.53***	0.57***	0.83***	0.88*	0.91
Father migrant	0.86*	0.39***	0.92	0.81*	0.86*
Father deceased	0.97	0.96	1.02	1.23	0.84
Father deceased^b
Father present	0.55***	0.57	0.81*	0.72**	1.09
Father migrant	0.89	0.41**	0.91	0.66***	1.03
Parents divorced	1.03	1.04	0.98	0.81	1.20
n	16 666	2 084	16 490	16 486	16 436

Notes: All regressions include a constant term. SD, standard deviation. ^aSouthern region is the reference category. ^bReference category. *Significant at the 0.1 level. **Significant at the 0.05 level. ***Significant at the 0.01 level.

Table 5: Odds ratio estimates for selected disadvantages, controlling for household wealth, Malawi 2010: younger children (ages 0 to 4)

	Non-use of mosquito net	Too thin (–1 SD)	Fever	Diarrhoea	Coughing
Control variables
Age	1.13***	1.13***	0.90***	0.65***	0.91***
Sex (female)	0.97	0.90	0.93**	0.96	1.00
Residence (rural)	1.07	1.38*	1.26***	0.98	1.18**
Northern region^a	1.14***	1.06	0.72***	0.79***	1.48***
Central region^a	1.06	1.00	1.32***	1.30***	1.36***
Mother's education	0.95***	0.98	1.00	0.99	1.02***
Children in household	1.09***	1.15***	0.96***	0.94***	1.00
Household wealth	0.82***	0.89***	0.99	0.99	1.00
Paternal co-residence status
Father present^b
Father migrant	1.64***	0.71	1.12*	0.92	0.94
Parents divorced	1.70***	1.73***	1.20***	1.13	1.1
Father deceased	1.75***	1.69	1.23*	1.39**	0.92
Father migrant^b
Father present	0.61***	1.41	0.90*	1.08	1.06
Parents divorced	1.04	2.45**	1.08	1.22*	1.17*
Father deceased	1.06	2.38**	1.10	1.51**	0.97
Parents divorced^b
Father present	0.59***	0.58***	0.83***	0.89	0.91
Father migrant	0.97	0.41**	0.93	0.82*	0.86*
Father deceased	1.03	0.97	1.02	1.24	0.84
Father deceased^b
Father present	0.57***	0.59	0.81*	0.72**	1.09
Father migrant	0.94	0.42**	0.91	0.66**	1.03
Parents divorced	0.98	1.03	0.98	0.81	1.20
n	16 666	2 084	16 490	16 486	16 436

Notes: All regressions include a constant term. SD, standard deviation. ^aSouthern region is the reference category. ^bReference category. *Significant at the 0.1 level. **Significant at the 0.05 level. ***Significant at the 0.01 level.

Table 6: Odds ratio estimates for various disadvantages, not controlling for household wealth, Malawi 2010: older children (ages 5 to 14)

	Non-use of mosquito net	Non-attendance at school^a	One or no meals yesterday	No pair of shoes	Fewer than two sets of clothes
Control variables
Age	1.10***	0.71***	0.98**	0.96***	0.96***
Sex (female)	0.97	0.77***	0.94	0.86***	0.84***
Residence (rural)	1.39***	1.40***	1.43***	2.87***	2.26***
Northern region^b	1.27***	0.74***	0.49***	0.85***	0.92
Central region^b	1.24***	1.16***	0.78***	0.89***	1.01
Mother's education	0.90***	0.80***	0.91***	0.84***	0.84***
Children in household	1.04***	1.06***	1.02	1.17***	1.05***
Paternal co-residence status
Father present^c
Father migrant	1.20***	1.16	1.26**	0.95	1.35***
Parents divorced	1.57***	1.41***	2.15***	2.41***	2.47***
Father deceased	1.89***	1.29***	1.81***	2.91***	2.63***
Father migrant^c
Father present	0.83***	0.87	0.79**	1.06	0.74***
Parents divorced	1.31***	1.21	1.71***	2.54***	1.83***
Father deceased	1.57***	1.12	1.44***	3.07***	1.95***
Parents divorced^c
Father present	0.64***	0.71***	0.47***	0.42***	0.41***
Father migrant	0.76***	0.82	0.59***	0.39***	0.55***
Father deceased	1.20**	0.92	0.84*	1.21***	1.07
Father deceased^c
Father present	0.53***	0.78***	0.55***	0.34***	0.38***
Father migrant	0.64***	0.90	0.70***	0.33***	0.51***
Parents divorced	0.83**	1.09	1.19*	0.83***	0.94
n	22 987	20 052	22 987	22 663	22 656

Notes: All regressions include a constant term (n is slightly lower here than in Table 3 because missing information on maternal education is removed).

^aAges 6 to 14. ^bSouthern region is the reference category. ^cReference category. *Significant at the 0.1 level. **Significant at the 0.05 level. ***Significant at the 0.01 level.

Table 7: Odds ratio estimates for various disadvantages, controlling for household wealth, Malawi 2010: older children (ages 5 to 14)

	Non-use of mosquito net	Non-attendance at school^a	One or no meals yesterday	No pair of shoes	Fewer than two sets of clothes
Control variables
Age	1.11***	0.72***	0.99	0.97***	0.97***
Sex (female)	0.97	0.77***	0.94	0.84***	0.83***
Residence (rural)	1.06	0.86	0.87	1.33***	1.07
Northern region^b	1.33***	0.79**	0.53***	0.96	1.05
Central region^b	1.22***	1.12**	0.75***	0.82***	0.94
Mother's education	0.93***	0.82***	0.95***	0.89***	0.89***
Children in household	1.05***	1.08***	1.03*	1.21***	1.07***
Household wealth	0.81***	0.72***	0.71***	0.56***	0.59***
Paternal co-residence status
Father present^c
Father migrant	1.18**	1.10	1.21	0.88*	1.27**
Parents divorced	1.35***	1.12	1.69***	1.67***	1.74***
Father deceased	1.71***	1.09	1.53***	2.36***	2.07***
Father migrant^c
Father present	0.85**	0.91	0.83	1.14*	0.79**
Parents divorced	1.14	1.02	1.40***	1.90***	1.37***
Father deceased	1.45***	0.99	1.27*	2.69***	1.64***
Parents divorced^c
Father present	0.74***	0.89	0.59***	0.60***	0.58***
Father migrant	0.88	0.98	0.71***	0.53***	0.73***
Father deceased	1.27***	0.97	0.90	1.42***	1.19**
Father deceased^c
Father present	0.59***	0.92	0.66***	0.42***	0.48***
Father migrant	0.69***	1.01	0.79*	0.37***	0.61***
Parents divorced	0.79***	1.03	1.11	0.71***	0.84**
n	22 987	20 052	22 987	22 663	22 656

Notes: All regressions include a constant term (n is slightly lower here than in Table 3 because missing information on maternal education is removed).

^aAges 6 to 14. ^bSouthern region is the reference category. ^cReference category. *Significant at the 0.1 level. **Significant at the 0.05 level. ***Significant at the 0.01 level.

Figure 1: Comparison of welfare disadvantages by paternal co-residence status, Malawi 2010, children aged 0 to 14

Notes: For control variables and details on individual comparisons, see Tables 4 to 7. For a summary of welfare disadvantages, see Table 3.

Figure 2: Magnitude of effects of paternal co-residence status on additive index of disadvantage, ordinary least-squares regression, Malawi 2010