Did primary healthcare user fee abolition matter? Reconsidering South Africa's experience

Figures & data

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of control variables

Variable	1995	1996	DD	Variable	1995	1996	DD
Survey year	0.000	1.000		Mother alive	0.973	0.977	–0.007
	(0.00)	(0.00)		(=1 if mother is known to still be alive)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Treated group	0.419	0.393		Father alive	0.879	0.865	0.014
(=1 if child is at least six years old)	(0.15)	(0.15)		(=1 if father is known to still be alive)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
DD indicator	0.419	0.000		Urban	0.498	0.547**	0.037
(=1 if age ≥6 & year=1996)	(0.15)	(0.00)		(=1 if lives in urban locale)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.04)
African	0.780	0.856***	0.026	Distance to medical facility: <15 minutes	0.307	0.301	–0.038
(=1 if black African)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.03)	(=1 if household lives within 15 minutes)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)
White	0.030	0.023	–0.008	Distance to medical facility: 15 to 30 minutes	0.336	0.316	0.020
(=1 if white)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.01)	(=1 if household 15 to 30 minutes away)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.04)
Asian	0.046***	0.026	0.006	Distance to medical facility: 30 to 60 minutes	0.196	0.199	0.038
(=1 if Asian)	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(=1 if household 30 to 60 minutes away)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)
Coloured	0.144***	0.095	–0.024	Distance to medical facility: >60 minutes	0.161	0.175	–0.025
(=1 if mixed race)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)	(=1 if household lives at least 60 minutes)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)
No children <6	0.195*	0.163	0.050	Own home	0.461	0.816***	0.049
(=1 if no children under six in household)	(0.07)	(0.06)	(0.03)	(=1 if household lives in a home they own)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
One child <6	0.425	0.465***	–0.013	Access to tap water	0.583	0.549	–0.008
(=1 if one child under six in household)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(=1 if have tap water in or near house)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.04)
Two or more <6	0.380	0.371	–0.037	Access to flush toilet	0.399***	0.325	–0.030
(=1 if two children under six in household)	(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.02)	(=1 if have a flush toilet in or near house)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
One adult	0.109	0.100	0.016	Access to phone	0.176	0.254***	0.040
(=1 if only one adult in household)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(=1 if own or rent phone)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
Two adults	0.408	0.411	–0.061	Refuse regularly collected	0.457	0.480	0.015
(=1 if two adults are in the household)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.05)	(=1 if refuse is regularly collected)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
Two + adults	0.483	0.489	0.045	Log expenditure	7.023***	6.061	–0.115
(=1 if more than two adults in household)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.04)	(= natural log of reported expenditure + 1)	(0.02)	(0.05)	(0.09)
Western Cape	0.088	0.085	–0.017	Rooms per capita	1.145	1.180	0.074
(=1 if lives in Western Cape)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(= rooms per person in dwelling)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.05)
Eastern Cape	0.214*	0.178	–0.013	Prop adults in union	0.078	0.077	0.011
(=1 if lives in Eastern Cape)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(= proportion adults in labour union)	(0.01)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Northern Cape	0.044	0.040	–0.013	Prop adults NLFP	0.385	0.573***	0.021
(=1 if lives in Northern Cape)	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(= proportion adults not participating work)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
Free State	0.080	0.071	–0.005	Prop adults employed	0.508***	0.316	–0.029
(=1 if lives in Free State)	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(= proportion of adults that are employed)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
KwaZulu-Natal	0.287***	0.151	–0.017	Prop adults matric	0.144	0.154**	–0.006
(=1 if lives in KwaZulu-Natal)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(= proportion of adults with matric)	(0.00)	(0.00)	(0.01)
Northwest	0.105	0.110	0.054**	Prop adults no school	0.154	0.159	–0.014
(=1 if lives in Northwest Province)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)	(= proportion of adults no schooling)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
Gauteng	0.077	0.163***	0.011	Prop adult smokers	0.269	0.247	–0.050
(=1 if lives in Gauteng Province)	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.03)	(= proportion of adults that are smokers)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.03)
Mpumalanga	0.080	0.079	–0.017	Children hungry	0.570***	0.285	0.037
(=1 if lives in Mpumalanga Province)	(0.01)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(=1 if children ever went hungry past year)	(0.01)	(0.02)	(0.04)
Limpopo	0.026	0.122***	0.016
(=1 if lives in Limpopo Province)	(0.00)	(0.01)	(0.02)	Observations	1 803	1 163

Source: 1995 and 1996 OHS data used in the analysis, limited to children under the age of 12 and reported as ill in the past 30 days. Reported standard errors clustered at the level of the household and reported in parentheses, along with tests of mean differences between 1995 and 1996. ***p <0.01, **p <0.05, *p <0.1 denote statistical significance of differences between 1995 and 1996, or, in the case of DD, represents significant difference from zero. The DD column provides a simple (without additional covariates) difference-in-difference estimate of the variable to determine whether the variable is potentially confounding the identification strategy used in the analysis. NLFP = non-labour force particpant.

Table 2: Descriptive analysis of outcome variables

Outcome	1995	1996
No treatment	0.220	0.350***
	(0.02)	(0.02)
Public clinic	0.282	0.255
	(0.01)	(0.02)
Public other	0.298***	0.221
	(0.01)	(0.01)
Private	0.200**	0.174
	(0.01)	(0.01)
Observations	1 803	1 163

Source: Author's calculations of means. Robust standard errors in parentheses are clustered by household; ***p <0.01, **p <0.05 refers to statistical significance of the mean difference with respect to the opposite column.

Table 3: Multinomial regression results

	Location and household controls			Wealth controls			Other household controls
Variable	Public clinic	Public other	Private	Public clinic	Public other	Private	Public clinic	Public other	Private
Survey year	0.584***	0.842***	0.634***	0.462***	0.812***	0.498**	0.463***	0.742***	0.363*
	(0.15)	(0.16)	(0.18)	(0.17)	(0.18)	(0.19)	(0.17)	(0.18)	(0.20)
Affected by policy	–0.731***	–0.562***	–0.616***	–0.746***	–0.575***	–0.625***	–0.745***	–0.569***	–0.593***
	(0.18)	(0.19)	(0.20)	(0.18)	(0.19)	(0.20)	(0.18)	(0.19)	(0.21)
DD – indicator	0.045	–0.136	–0.069	0.053	–0.129	–0.055	0.043	–0.126	–0.034
	(0.22)	(0.22)	(0.24)	(0.22)	(0.22)	(0.24)	(0.22)	(0.22)	(0.24)
Eastern Cape	0.156	0.165	0.180	0.210	0.202	0.273	0.237	0.271	0.340
	(0.30)	(0.27)	(0.31)	(0.29)	(0.28)	(0.31)	(0.30)	(0.28)	(0.32)
Northern Cape	–0.156	–0.492	–1.206***	–0.132	–0.447	–1.126***	–0.095	–0.338	–0.945**
	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.41)	(0.33)	(0.33)	(0.42)	(0.34)	(0.33)	(0.42)
Free State	–1.556***	–0.571*	0.043	–1.532***	–0.513*	0.085	–1.524***	–0.499	0.073
	(0.37)	(0.31)	(0.32)	(0.38)	(0.31)	(0.33)	(0.38)	(0.31)	(0.34)
KwaZulu-Natal	–0.094	0.258	0.301	–0.073	0.288	0.345	–0.030	0.350	0.366
	(0.30)	(0.27)	(0.31)	(0.30)	(0.28)	(0.32)	(0.30)	(0.28)	(0.32)
Northwest	0.585*	–0.003	0.761**	0.649**	0.065	0.829**	0.691**	0.142	0.889***
	(0.32)	(0.31)	(0.33)	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.34)	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.34)
Gauteng	–0.432	0.212	0.423	–0.397	0.247	0.453	–0.391	0.208	0.365
	(0.32)	(0.28)	(0.32)	(0.32)	(0.28)	(0.32)	(0.31)	(0.28)	(0.33)
Mpumalanga	–0.301	–0.556*	0.287	–0.222	–0.464	0.328	–0.179	–0.391	0.370
	(0.35)	(0.33)	(0.35)	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.36)	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.36)
Limpopo	–0.229	0.087	–0.024	–0.163	0.164	0.023	–0.075	0.269	0.125
	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.40)	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.41)	(0.36)	(0.34)	(0.42)
Urban residence	0.012	0.196	0.304*	0.113	0.302	0.314	0.112	0.272	0.292
	(0.15)	(0.15)	(0.17)	(0.21)	(0.21)	(0.25)	(0.22)	(0.21)	(0.25)
White	–0.153	0.255	0.508**	–0.133	0.278	0.473*	–0.179	0.262	0.477*
	(0.25)	(0.23)	(0.25)	(0.25)	(0.23)	(0.26)	(0.26)	(0.23)	(0.26)
Asian	–1.320***	–0.286	0.383	–1.280***	–0.245	0.297	–1.211**	–0.232	0.168
	(0.49)	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.50)	(0.34)	(0.32)	(0.50)	(0.34)	(0.33)
Coloured	–2.530***	0.141	0.852**	–2.447***	0.219	0.765**	–2.347***	0.203	0.465
	(0.76)	(0.35)	(0.37)	(0.76)	(0.36)	(0.38)	(0.78)	(0.39)	(0.41)
One child <6	–0.233	–0.369**	–0.335*	–0.232	–0.378**	–0.337*	–0.233	–0.399**	–0.385*
	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.20)	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.20)	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.21)
Two + children <6	–0.306	–0.345*	–0.408*	–0.326	–0.368*	–0.407*	–0.335	–0.379*	–0.406*
	(0.21)	(0.20)	(0.23)	(0.21)	(0.20)	(0.23)	(0.21)	(0.20)	(0.23)
Two adults	–0.345	–0.109	–0.115	–0.375*	–0.126	–0.156	–0.388*	–0.118	–0.085
	(0.21)	(0.22)	(0.25)	(0.21)	(0.22)	(0.25)	(0.21)	(0.23)	(0.26)
Three adults (or more)	–0.421**	–0.335	–0.328	–0.427**	–0.347	–0.343	–0.414**	–0.279	–0.136
	(0.21)	(0.22)	(0.25)	(0.21)	(0.22)	(0.25)	(0.21)	(0.22)	(0.25)
Distance 15 to 30 minutes	–0.251	–0.001	–0.236	–0.275*	–0.016	–0.231	–0.273*	–0.015	–0.240
	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.17)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.17)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.17)
Distance 30 to 60 minutes	–0.227	0.117	–0.404**	–0.269	0.081	–0.383*	–0.271	0.079	–0.368*
	(0.18)	(0.19)	(0.21)	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.21)	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.21)
Distance >60 minutes	–0.633***	–0.128	–0.625***	–0.666***	–0.154	–0.584**	–0.663***	–0.138	–0.523**
	(0.21)	(0.20)	(0.24)	(0.21)	(0.21)	(0.24)	(0.21)	(0.21)	(0.24)
Log expenditure				0.014	–0.025	0.051	0.023	–0.034	0.019
				(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.06)	(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.06)
Rooms per capita				0.014	–0.066	0.052	0.026	–0.063	0.050
				(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.08)
Owns home				–0.308**	–0.156	–0.247*	–0.305**	–0.134	–0.261*
				(0.14)	(0.14)	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.14)	(0.15)
Tap water access				–0.101	–0.157	0.148	–0.086	–0.171	0.108
				(0.18)	(0.18)	(0.22)	(0.18)	(0.19)	(0.22)
Flush toilet				–0.065	0.118	0.010	–0.071	0.078	–0.023
				(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.21)	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.22)
Phone access				–0.121	–0.011	0.010	–0.116	–0.021	–0.019
				(0.19)	(0.18)	(0.20)	(0.19)	(0.18)	(0.20)
Regular refuse				0.017	–0.075	–0.118	0.025	–0.065	–0.117
				(0.22)	(0.21)	(0.26)	(0.23)	(0.21)	(0.26)
Union proportion							0.254	0.486	–0.006
							(0.39)	(0.34)	(0.37)
NLFP proportion							0.042	–0.366	–0.555*
							(0.28)	(0.29)	(0.33)
No school proportion							–0.145	–0.199	–0.417
							(0.22)	(0.25)	(0.30)
Matric proportion							–0.511	–0.095	0.475*
							(0.31)	(0.25)	(0.25)
Employed proportion							0.058	0.073	0.391
							(0.30)	(0.31)	(0.33)
Smokers proportion							0.032	0.083	–0.199
							(0.23)	(0.22)	(0.23)
Father alive							0.088	–0.221	0.025
							(0.18)	(0.18)	(0.23)
Mother alive							–0.439	–0.106	–0.360
							(0.34)	(0.37)	(0.41)
Constant	0.962**	0.140	–0.174	1.159**	0.519	–0.416	1.419**	0.980	0.219
	(0.42)	(0.41)	(0.44)	(0.49)	(0.51)	(0.57)	(0.62)	(0.65)	(0.72)
Observations	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966

Source: Results from multinomial regression (STATA 12) application of DD. Standard errors clustered at the level of the household. ***p <0.01, **p <0.05, *p <0.1 denote statistical significance of parameter estimates. Log-likelihood values reported in Table 5.

Table 4: Multinomial regression results with year interactions

	Location and household controls			Wealth controls			Other household controls
Variable	Public Other	Private	Public Clinic	Public Clinic	Public Other	Private	Public clinic	Public other	Private
Survey year	1.238***	1.083**	0.144	0.186	–0.701	–2.373**	–0.890	–0.333	–2.024
	(0.47)	(0.44)	(0.48)	(0.98)	(1.01)	(1.15)	(1.13)	(1.15)	(1.32)
Affected by policy	–0.774***	–0.567***	–0.478**	–0.789***	–0.568***	–0.479**	–0.777***	–0.575***	–0.415*
	(0.20)	(0.22)	(0.21)	(0.20)	(0.22)	(0.21)	(0.20)	(0.22)	(0.22)
DD – indicator	0.102	–0.123	–0.287	0.105	–0.150	–0.301	0.079	–0.135	–0.332
	(0.26)	(0.27)	(0.28)	(0.26)	(0.27)	(0.28)	(0.26)	(0.27)	(0.29)
Eastern Cape	0.910***	0.754**	0.729*	0.931***	0.801**	0.797**	1.013***	0.965***	0.962**
	(0.35)	(0.35)	(0.39)	(0.35)	(0.35)	(0.39)	(0.35)	(0.36)	(0.40)
Northern Cape	–0.160	–0.481	–1.177***	–0.135	–0.424	–1.110***	–0.048	–0.289	–0.828**
	(0.34)	(0.32)	(0.41)	(0.34)	(0.33)	(0.42)	(0.34)	(0.33)	(0.42)
Free State	–1.067**	0.458	0.166	–1.098**	0.530	0.246	–1.084**	0.553	0.189
	(0.52)	(0.43)	(0.51)	(0.54)	(0.43)	(0.52)	(0.54)	(0.43)	(0.52)
KwaZulu-Natal	–0.121	0.239	0.332	–0.139	0.251	0.343	–0.067	0.357	0.372
	(0.30)	(0.27)	(0.31)	(0.30)	(0.28)	(0.32)	(0.30)	(0.28)	(0.32)
Northwest	0.632*	0.052	0.831**	0.637*	0.092	0.872***	0.694**	0.202	0.904***
	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.33)	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.34)	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.34)
Gauteng	–0.326	0.212	0.381	–0.372	0.197	0.421	–0.412	0.173	0.129
	(0.37)	(0.35)	(0.38)	(0.38)	(0.35)	(0.39)	(0.38)	(0.36)	(0.40)
Mpumalanga	–0.289	–0.536	0.331	–0.243	–0.488	0.324	–0.144	–0.366	0.349
	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.36)	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.36)	(0.35)	(0.35)	(0.37)
Limpopo	0.098	0.397	0.120	0.144	0.489	0.145	0.273	0.687*	0.239
	(0.39)	(0.39)	(0.48)	(0.39)	(0.38)	(0.48)	(0.40)	(0.39)	(0.48)
Urban residence	0.113	0.317	0.295	0.079	0.420	0.252	0.068	0.389	0.123
	(0.24)	(0.24)	(0.27)	(0.30)	(0.28)	(0.35)	(0.30)	(0.29)	(0.35)
White	–0.207	0.462	0.987***	–0.311	0.525	1.063***	–0.379	0.426	0.639
	(0.36)	(0.34)	(0.37)	(0.38)	(0.35)	(0.38)	(0.39)	(0.36)	(0.40)
Asian	–1.353	–0.598	–0.353	–1.464	–0.574	–0.333	–1.398	–0.480	–0.721
	(0.90)	(0.63)	(0.58)	(0.92)	(0.63)	(0.59)	(0.90)	(0.63)	(0.63)
Coloured	–2.666***	0.267	1.286***	–2.567***	0.322	1.181**	–2.619***	0.247	0.486
	(0.81)	(0.45)	(0.49)	(0.81)	(0.46)	(0.50)	(0.84)	(0.51)	(0.54)
One child<6	–0.230	–0.364	0.044	–0.256	–0.365	0.053	–0.282	–0.425	–0.001
	(0.30)	(0.30)	(0.34)	(0.31)	(0.30)	(0.33)	(0.31)	(0.31)	(0.35)
Two + children <6	–0.446	–0.377	–0.008	–0.450	–0.321	0.028	–0.493	–0.356	0.082
	(0.33)	(0.34)	(0.35)	(0.33)	(0.34)	(0.35)	(0.34)	(0.35)	(0.37)
Two adults	–0.389*	–0.141	–0.139	–0.412*	–0.193	–0.234	–0.446**	–0.182	–0.162
	(0.21)	(0.22)	(0.25)	(0.22)	(0.22)	(0.25)	(0.22)	(0.23)	(0.26)
Three adults (or more)	–0.462**	–0.376*	–0.348	–0.478**	–0.463**	–0.471*	–0.460**	–0.361	–0.235
	(0.21)	(0.22)	(0.25)	(0.21)	(0.23)	(0.25)	(0.22)	(0.23)	(0.26)
Distance 15 to 30 minutes	–0.245	0.012	–0.244	–0.275*	–0.006	–0.247	–0.282*	–0.002	–0.248
	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.17)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.17)	(0.16)	(0.16)	(0.18)
Distance 30 to 60 minutes	–0.230	0.131	–0.410**	–0.278	0.086	–0.402*	–0.294	0.092	–0.399*
	(0.18)	(0.18)	(0.21)	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.21)	(0.19)	(0.19)	(0.21)
Distance >60 minutes	–0.633***	–0.094	–0.640***	–0.655***	–0.109	–0.591**	–0.647***	–0.071	–0.544**
	(0.21)	(0.21)	(0.24)	(0.21)	(0.21)	(0.24)	(0.21)	(0.21)	(0.24)
Log expenditure	–0.075	0.272	0.682*	–0.248	0.283	0.762*	–0.253	0.182	0.278
	(0.41)	(0.38)	(0.40)	(0.43)	(0.39)	(0.42)	(0.43)	(0.40)	(0.44)
Rooms per capita	0.057	0.796	1.684**	0.221	0.799	1.580**	0.105	0.563	1.409*
	(1.10)	(0.79)	(0.75)	(1.11)	(0.78)	(0.75)	(1.10)	(0.77)	(0.79)
Owns home	–0.234	–0.093	0.549	–0.188	0.019	0.619	–0.269	–0.012	0.654
	(0.42)	(0.43)	(0.46)	(0.43)	(0.43)	(0.46)	(0.43)	(0.43)	(0.48)
Tap water access	–0.265	–0.084	–0.008	–0.175	0.013	0.037	–0.208	0.020	0.104
	(0.28)	(0.28)	(0.32)	(0.28)	(0.29)	(0.33)	(0.29)	(0.29)	(0.33)
Flush toilet	–1.242***	–0.952***	–0.847**	–1.219***	–0.948***	–0.766*	–1.264***	–1.055***	–0.927**
	(0.33)	(0.35)	(0.41)	(0.33)	(0.35)	(0.40)	(0.33)	(0.35)	(0.41)
Phone access	–0.810	–1.674***	–0.191	–0.739	–1.611***	–0.122	–0.791	–1.658***	–0.142
	(0.59)	(0.49)	(0.53)	(0.59)	(0.49)	(0.55)	(0.60)	(0.49)	(0.55)
Regular refuse	0.030	0.313	0.441	0.116	0.355	0.369	0.197	0.412	0.684
	(0.47)	(0.44)	(0.47)	(0.49)	(0.45)	(0.48)	(0.50)	(0.46)	(0.50)
Union proportion	–0.710	–0.548	–0.234	–0.724	–0.583	–0.292	–0.807	–0.707	–0.369
	(0.56)	(0.58)	(0.67)	(0.56)	(0.59)	(0.67)	(0.57)	(0.60)	(0.68)
NLFP proportion	–0.157	–0.197	–0.001	0.050	–0.201	0.047	0.134	–0.145	0.213
	(0.28)	(0.29)	(0.32)	(0.33)	(0.32)	(0.36)	(0.33)	(0.33)	(0.37)
No school proportion				–0.022	–0.079	–0.020	–0.023	–0.084	–0.041
				(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.06)	(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.06)
Matric proportion				0.010	–0.084	0.017	0.025	–0.086	0.043
				(0.09)	(0.08)	(0.08)	(0.09)	(0.08)	(0.08)
Employed proportion				–0.460*	–0.406*	–0.196	–0.477**	–0.431*	–0.243
				(0.24)	(0.24)	(0.28)	(0.24)	(0.25)	(0.28)
Smokers proportion				–0.128	–0.155	0.184	–0.149	–0.186	0.147
				(0.18)	(0.18)	(0.22)	(0.18)	(0.19)	(0.22)
Father alive				–0.093	0.413	0.401	–0.118	0.393	0.370
				(0.31)	(0.31)	(0.32)	(0.31)	(0.31)	(0.34)
Mother alive				0.292	–0.287	–0.378	0.264	–0.330	–0.416
				(0.30)	(0.30)	(0.33)	(0.30)	(0.30)	(0.34)
Year*African				0.050	–0.086	–0.152	0.082	–0.062	–0.133
				(0.23)	(0.21)	(0.27)	(0.23)	(0.22)	(0.27)
Year*Asian				0.217	0.321	–0.111	0.242	0.385	–0.074
				(0.30)	(0.30)	(0.33)	(0.30)	(0.30)	(0.33)
Year*no child <6				–0.132	–0.474	–0.645	–0.125	–0.512	–0.666
				(0.38)	(0.37)	(0.40)	(0.38)	(0.38)	(0.41)
Year*one child <6				–0.787*	0.289	0.436	–0.772*	0.309	0.447
				(0.41)	(0.38)	(0.42)	(0.41)	(0.39)	(0.43)
Year*Eastern Cape				0.141	0.228*	0.354**	0.167	0.161	0.275*
				(0.13)	(0.13)	(0.15)	(0.14)	(0.14)	(0.16)
Year*KwaZulu-Natal							0.144	0.333	–0.214
							(0.39)	(0.35)	(0.37)
Year*Gauteng							–0.626	–0.378	–1.103**
							(0.40)	(0.45)	(0.49)
Year*Limpopo							–0.167	–0.230	–0.405
							(0.23)	(0.24)	(0.30)
Year*urban							–0.393	–0.601	0.523
							(0.45)	(0.40)	(0.38)
Year*own home							–0.377	0.312	0.671
							(0.48)	(0.52)	(0.52)
Year*flush toilet							0.092	0.164	–0.111
							(0.23)	(0.22)	(0.23)
Year*phone							0.071	–0.231	–0.010
							(0.18)	(0.18)	(0.23)
Year*log expenditure							–0.572	–0.183	–0.416
							(0.35)	(0.38)	(0.41)
Year*NLFP							1.349**	0.195	1.040
							(0.56)	(0.59)	(0.64)
Year*employment							0.998	–0.104	–0.182
							(0.62)	(0.64)	(0.67)
Year*matric							–0.179	0.711	–0.128
							(0.61)	(0.52)	(0.52)
Year*hungry							–0.314*	–0.177	–0.094
							(0.17)	(0.17)	(0.19)
Constant	0.791	–0.129	–0.674	1.377**	0.803	–0.423	2.410***	1.346	0.485
	(0.49)	(0.49)	(0.53)	(0.60)	(0.63)	(0.68)	(0.76)	(0.82)	(0.89)
Observations	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966

Source: Results from multinomial regression (STATA 12) application of DD. Standard errors clustered at the level of the household. ***p <0.01, **p <0.05, *p <0.1 denote statistical significance of parameter estimates. Log-likelihood values reported in Table 5.

Table 5: DD estimates for multinomial logit regression models

	Without year interactions			With year interactions
Outcome	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4	Model 2	Model 3	Model 4
No treatment	0.017	0.016	0.014	0.033	0.033	0.031
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.05)	(0.04)	(0.05)
Public clinic	0.011	0.011	0.011	0.023	0.027	0.027
	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.02)	(0.03)	(0.03)
Public other	–0.025	–0.026	–0.027	–0.007	–0.010	–0.011
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.05)	(0.05)	(0.05)
Private	–0.004	–0.001	0.002	–0.049	–0.051	–0.047
	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.04)	(0.05)	(0.04)
Log-likelihood	–3 874.7	–3 864.6	–3 829.6	–3 843.9	–3 819.6	–3 772.3
Observations	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966	2 966

Source: Author's calculations of DD marginal effects with balanced factors, average household distance (in time) from health facility and all continuous variables at their median values. Robust standard errors in parentheses are clustered at the level of the household.