Religiosity and household income in Sekhukhune

Figures & data

Table 1. Income sources in Fetakgomo.

Income source	% of households receiving income from the source	Mean monetary return per month in ZAR
Agriculture
Field crops	41	146	(206)
Vegetables	29	98	(259)
Livestock	53	391	(764)
Fruit	56	24	(32)
Gathering wood	69	137	(113)
Agriculture total	94	429	(673)
Other income sources
Formal income (excluding social grants)	23	8 085	(7 835)
Informal income	53	1 190	(1 395)
Remittances	39	818	(680)
Social grants	78	1 417	(868)

Note: Standard deviation in brackets; amounts rounded to nearest ZAR 1; N = 180.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics.

Variable	Min.	Max.	Mean	Std. dev.
Income (ZAR)	305	32 735	4 356	4 933
Household demographics
gender [1 = female]	dummy		.64
age [years]	21	101	54.67	14.97
size [number of household members]	1	15	4.80	2.44
s_child [share of household members below age 18]	0	1	.45	.28
s_pens [share of household members above age 65]	0	1	.14	.21
Geography:
road [distance to nearest tar road in km]	0	18	3.58	3.95
shop[distance to closest supermarket in km]	0	75	18.53	18.13
Human capital
school [school years completed by household head]	0	12	5.76	4.84
tertiary [tertiary education completed by household head, 1 = learnership, 2 = college/university]	0	2	.19	.53
school_o [mean school years completed by adult household members, except household head]	0	12	8.28	2.89
learn [number of adult household members with completed learnership, except household head]	0	2	.12	.34
acad [number of adult household members with completed college/university, except household head]	0	2	.09	.30
clinic [1 = clinic in village]	dummy		.69
Social capital
group [number of groups household head is a member of]	0	4	1.40	.74
chief [household head’s relation to chief, 1 = distant family or council member, 2 = 2^nd degree relation or distant relation and council member, 3 = 1^st degree relation or relation and senior councillor]	0	3	.56	.81

Note: N = 180.

Table 3. Religious groups’ profiles.

	Household income in ZAR	School years completed	Weekly church service attendance	Weekly other church activities attendance	Weekly prayer frequency
All observations	4 356 (4 933)	5.76 (4.84)	n/a
Apostolic churches (12.8%) apostolic	3 006 (2 158)	5.78 (4.55)	1.52 (1.37)	.57 (.51)	13.09 (5.30)
Pentecostal-Charismatic churches (8.3%) charismatic	5 078 (8 034)	7.60 (5.58)	1.65 (1.34)	1.06 (.70)	12.83 (8.12)
Mainline churches (5.0%) mainline	10 718 (10 556)	9.33 (3.87)	1.08 (.77)	.47 (.71)	12.37 (4.64)
Zion Christian Church (20.0%) zcc	4 216 (3 875)	6.08 (5.01)	1.78 (.87)	1.28 (.70)	14.44 (6.57)
St. Engenas Zion Christian Church (12.8%) engenas	3 264 (1 988)	5.61 (4.75)	2.38 (1.20)	1.00 (.91)	12.75 (5.83)
Other churches (2.8%) other	4 285 (1 053)	7.40 (4.98)	1.20 (.45)	.80 (.84)	8.80 (5.17)
All churches (61.7%)	4 415 (5 184)	6.45 (5.90)	1.75 (1.15)	.96 (.77)	13.17 (6.21)
African traditional religion (43.9%) atr	4 958 (5 974)	4.77 (4.79)	n/a

Notes: Standard deviation in brackets; household income rounded to nearest ZAR 1; N = 180.

Table 4. Estimation results log-linear income equation.

	I		II
	Coefficient	Standard error	Coefficient	Standard error
Constant	6.184***	.440	6.460***	.432
Household demographics
gender	–.344***	.106	–.286***	.107
age	.016**	.006	.012**	.006
size	.096***	.026	.101***	.026
s_child	–.179	.236	–.185	.239
s_pens	.166	.327	.266	.332
Geography
road	–.024*	.014	–.023*	.014
shop	.004	.003	.004	.003
Human capital
school	.034**	.015	.029**	.015
tertiary	.648***	.103	.683***	.101
school_o	.008	.017	.003	.018
learn	.231	.155	.213	.158
acad	.363**	.169	.385**	.171
clinic	.028	.105	.061	.107
Social capital
group	.064	.069	.034	.069
chief	–.086	.061	–.088	.061
Religious groups
mainline	.286	.241
zcc	.469***	.160
engenas	.166	.173
apostolic	–.156	.166
charismatic	.268	.204
other	.372	.313
church			.181	.129
atr	.314**	.124	.314**	.124

*p < .1.

**p < .05.

***p < .01.

Notes: Dependent variable: ln(income); N = 180; Adjusted R² = .48(I)/.45(II).

Table 5. Probit estimates of membership in the ZCC and practice of ATR.

	Membership in ZCC					Practice of ATR
	Coefficient	Standard error (asymptotic)		Wald statistic		Coefficient		Standard error(asymptotic)	Wald statistic
constant	–.828	1.154		.515		–1.079		1.081	.996
gender	.832***	.350		5.658		–.404		.265	2.323
school_o	–.110**	.050		4.910		–.010		.046	.051
clinic	.180	.298		.367		–.516*		.265	3.806
chief	.334**	.163		4.181		.087		.149	0.344
church						–2.027***		.269	56.990
atr	–1.120***	.307		13.310

*p < .1.

**p < .05.

***p < .01.

Non-significant coefficients omitted.

Notes: Dependent variables: prob(zcc = 1), prob(atr = 1); N = 180; McFadden Pseudo R² = 0.24 (ZCC model), 0.377 (ATR model).

Table 6. Estimation results log-linear model with Heckman’s λ.

	Estimation with ZCC		Estimation with ATR
	Coefficient	Standard Error	Coefficient	Standard Error
constant	6.505***	.465	6.627***	.478
gender	–.281**	.112	–.318**	.103
age	.012*	.007	.012**	.006
size	.092***	.026	.092***	.022
s_child	–.084	.244
s_pens	.216	.347	.281	.322
road	–.027*	.015	–.025*	.014
shop	.004	.003	.004	.003
school	.031**	.016	.029**	.015
tertiary	.671***	.100	.698***	.103
school_o			.004	.018
learn	.218	.153	.226	.155
acad	.391**	.167	.414**	.171
clinic	.054	.107
groups	.056	.069
chief			–.079	.059
church			.058	.286
zcc	.481	.501
atr	.185	.123	.056	.550
λ1	–.092	.185	.045	.172
λ0	1.531	1.957	.939	1.379

*p < .1.

**p < .05.

***p < .01.

Standard errors corrected according to Heckman (1979).

Notes: Dependent variable: ln(income); N = 180; Adjusted R² = .46.

Heckman, JJ, 1979. Sample selection bias as a specification error. Econometrica 47, 153–61. doi: 10.2307/1912352

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