The impact of commodified non-timber forest products on the livelihoods of San in Northern Namibia

Figures & data

Table 1. Potential livelihood impacts of GVCs.

Impact	Positive	Negative
Employment and income	Global demand ensures employment opportunities and regulated wages	Local actors often have limited bargaining power, are minimally paid and are dependent on the middlemen; they require conformity while labour demands are seasonally-adjusted
Upgrading	Offers opportunities to learn new skills while enhancing value-added activities	Often value-added activities remain basic or generic, trapped in low-skill activities
Working conditions	Introduces health and safety standards with institutional policy support	High standards thus exclude or neglect potential local actors and lack an international regulatory system

Source: Authors

Table 2. Potential livelihood impacts of RVC.

Impact	Positive	Negative
Employment and income	Regional demand ensures a wider and variety of employment opportunities (from primary to tertiary activities of the value chain); it enables entrepreneurship	Insufficient demand, high vulnerability due to national crises; inadequately skilled workforce, and entrepreneurial capabilities
Upgrading	More appropriate enhancement of skills through learning by doing	Lack of support in training credits leads to the marginalisation of indigenous people
Working conditions	Standards are contextually embedded	Exploitation of vulnerable communities, women, and children through family work

Source: Authors

Figure 1. Location of study sites in relation to the layout of Namibia. Source: Authors, data from Namibia Statistics Agency.

Figure 2. Price per kilogramme for Devil’s Claw harvesters over different years. Source: Authors, data from the KA Office in Mutciku.

Table 3. NTFPs harvested in Okongo and BNP by the Khwe and !Xun for local or regional trade.

Product names	Local uses	Average earnings for harvesters (in NAD/N$)
Strychnos cocculoides (!nho; |uana; omauni; maguni; Natal/Monkey Oranges)	Pulp of the fruit eaten fresh and can be blended into juice	N$3 for each or N$50 for 30 kg
Schinziophyton rautanenii (|Xom; ||gxa; omanghete; Manketti)	Kernels are eaten raw or cooked to make stews; the fruit’s pulp is used to make a traditional gin	N$10 per 250 g of kernels or N$10 for 12.5 kg of fruits
Seeds of Guibourtia coleosperma (tceu; |ui; eesii; False Mopane)	Cooked to make stew	N$10 per 250 g
Dioscorea species (dinga; sha’a; omambibo)	Tubers are cooked or eaten fresh to quench thirst	N$ 10 per bundle
Cucumis mutelifas (|’a; menge; omanyoshwa,; African horned cucumber)	Fruits are peeled and freshly eaten	N$2 each
Parinari curatellifolia (naxane; Mobola Plums)	Fruits are eaten fresh; their kernels are also edible	N$20 per 500g
Wild honey (‡Ipa, ||aua, omaadi eenyiki/owishi)	Eaten raw or diluted with water for drinking; it is also specially fed to babies whose mothers produce insufficient breast milk	N$20 per 50 ml
Cirina forda (olele; edible worms/caterpillars,)	The dried larva is cooked for consumption	N$20 per 50g

Source: Authors

Table 4. NTFPs’ livelihood impacts on the Khwe and !Xun San in BNP and Okongo.

Impacts	Devil’s Claw	Natal Oranges and other NTFPs
Employment and Income	Very limited employment opportunities but the few that are employed receive regulated minimum or above minimum wages; harvesters only earn a minimal once-off income per year	Formal employment and wages are non-existent; harvesters earn minimal income from the sales based on the products’ season
Upgrading	Training of harvesters is conducted for best sustainable harvesting practices and products’ quality assurance but harvesters remain in low-skill jobs	No training or new skills are offered to harvesters
Working conditions	No occupational health or safety arrangements are in place for harvesters	Exploitation of landless and vulnerable harvesters, particularly in Okongo

Source: Authors