Constructing an ‘emotional community’ in times of crisis: the EU’s response to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022

Figures & data

Table 1. The interplay of emotions with violated norms and action taken by the EU during Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (February 2022-May 2022).

	Emotions expressed by the EU
Codes	Subcodes	Resolve/ togetherness	Sympathy/ solidarity	Anger/ revenge	Fear/ Anxiety	Pride	all emotions in connection with a given norm/action category (%)	N
Norms violated*
	Int. law	19,51	19,51	60,97	0	0	47,12	41
	Freedom and democracy	0	20	10	0	7	11,49	10
	Human rights	0	69,23	26,92	0	3,84	29,88	26
	EU’s security and stability	0	0	10	90	0	11,49	10
all norm violations		9,19	32,18	39,08	10,34	9,19	100%	87
Action taken**
	Verbal instruments	25	28,57	32,14	0	14,28	32,18	28
	Aid	0	70,37	14,81	0	14,81	31,03	27
	Sanctions	4,34	4,34	91,3	0	0	26,43	23
	Further EU integration	0	0	0	100	0	10,34	9
all actions in connection with a given emotion category (%)		9,19	32,18	39,08	10,34	9,19	100%	87
Number of coded statements (N)		8	28	34	9	8	100%	87

*The percentage of all the statements which include both a specific norm and emotion category to all the statements containing all emotion categories coded under a specific norm category.

**The percentage of all the statements involving both a specific emotion category and a given action category to all the statements containing all emotion categories coded in connection with a given action category.

Table 2. The nexus of norms-emotions-action in the EU’s response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.

Violated Norms	Emotions	Action
International law	Anger/revenge Resolve/togetherness	Sanctions Verbal instruments
Human rights Human rights (war crimes)	Sympathy/solidarity Anger/revenge	Aid Sanctions (5^th package)
EU’s security and stability	Anxiety/fear	Further EU integration

Table

Document	Date	Genre	EU institutional actor
Russia-Ukraine war 2022
Remarks following the Special European Council on Ukraine	25 February 2022	Declaration	European Council President, Charles Michel
Remarks at the press conference following the European Council meeting	25 March 2022	Press remarks	European Council President, Charles Michel
Address to the Ukrainian people	27 February 2022	Formal address	European Council President, Charles Michel
Address to the Ukrainian Congress of local and regional authorities	27 April 2022	Formal address	European Council President, Charles Michel
Remarks at the High-level international donors’ conference for Ukraine	5 May 2022	Remarks	European Council President, Charles Michel
Europe Day statement in Odesa, Ukraine	9 May 2022	Statement	European Council President, Charles Michel
Remarks following President’s meeting with President Volodymyr Zelenskyy via video conference in Odesa, Ukraine	9 May 2022	Remarks	European Council President, Charles Michel
Joint statement by the members of the European Council	24 February 2022	Joint statement	European Council
Special meeting of the European Council – Conclusions	24 February 2022	Conclusions	European Council
Informal meeting of the Heads of State or Government Versailles Declaration	11 March 2022	Declaration	European Council
European Council meeting – Conclusions	25 March 2022	Conclusions	European Council
Statement on Russian aggression against Ukraine 22 February 2022	22 February 2022	Statement	Presidents of the European Council and Commission
Declaration on behalf of the European Union on the decisions of the Russian Federation further undermining Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity	22 February 2022	Declaration	High Representative, Josep Borrell
EU adopts package of sanctions in response to Russian recognition of the non-government controlled areas of the Donetsk and Luhansk oblasts of Ukraine and sending of troops into the region	23 February 2023	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
Press remarks after extraordinary informal meeting of EU Foreign Ministers	22 February 2022	Press remarks	High Representative, Josep Borrell
Declaration on behalf of the European Union on the invasion of Ukraine by armed forces of the Russian Federation	24 February 2022	Declaration	High Representative, Josep Borrell
Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine: EU imposes sanctions against President Putin and Foreign Minister Lavrov and adopts wide ranging individual and economic sanctions	25 February 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
Extraordinary Foreign Affairs Council	25 February 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
EU adopts new set of measures to respond to Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine	28 February 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
EU imposes sanctions on state-owned outlets RT/Russia Today and Sputnik’s broadcasting in the EU	2 March 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine: EU bans certain Russian banks from SWIFT system and introduces further restrictions	2 March 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine: EU agrees new sectoral measures targeting Belarus and Russia	9 March 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
EU imposes restrictive measures on 160 individuals as a consequence of Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine	9 March 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
Russia’s military aggression against Ukraine: fourth EU package of sectoral and individual measures	15 March 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
Declaration on behalf of the EU on Russian atrocities committed in Bucha and other Ukrainian towns	4 April 2022	Declaration	High Representative, Josep Borrell
EU adopts fifth round of sanctions against Russia over its military aggression against Ukraine	8 April 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)
EU support to Ukraine: Council agrees on further increase of support under the European Peace Facility	24 May 2022	Press release	High Representative, Josep Borrell (on behalf of the Council)

Table

	Code labels	Definition	Typical quotation
Norms violated	Code.1. International law	This code includes explicit mentions of international law violations; rules-based order; international peace, security and stability; the sovereign equality and territorial integrity of states; the inviolability of frontiers; refraining from the threat or use of force; and the freedom of states to choose or change their own security arrangements. It also includes references to the principles enshrined in the UN Charter, the founding documents of the OSCE, including the Helsinki Final Act and the Charter of Paris as well as Russia’s international obligations. It also includes words that contravene these international principles such as military aggression, attack, war. This code excludes human rights violations, European stability and security, other EU values, including freedom and democracy.	‘By its unprovoked and unjustified military actions, Russia is grossly violating international law’ ‘This [Russia’s] illegal act further undermines Ukraine’s sovereignty and independence and is a severe breach of international law and international agreements, including the UN Charter, Helsinki Final Act, Paris Charter and Budapest Memorandum.’
	Code.2. Freedom and democracy	This code refers to the freedom and democracy with an emphasis on the EU’s (our) common values.	‘We commend the people of Ukraine for their courage in defending our shared values of freedom and democracy’
	Code.3. Human rights	This code includes references to the universal human rights, including statements that call for the respect for international law with regard to human rights and humanitarian norms. It includes also references to or connotations of the violations of these norms such as war crimes, human suffering, the loss of life, the violation of human dignity and attacks on civilians. References to the rights of people fleeing war (refugees) are also coded under this category.	‘We deplore the loss of life and humanitarian suffering.’ ‘Russia’s war of aggression against Ukraine is causing massive loss of life and injury to civilians.’ ‘The Russian military aggression against Ukraine has forced millions of people to flee their homes.’ ‘Russian aggression is inflicting unspeakable suffering on the Ukrainian population.’
	Code.4. EU’s security and stability	This category includes statements that emphasize a change in the EU’s security environment, a concern about the negative impact of the situation on the EU’s security interests, EU’s stability, its citizens, values, policies or expressions of concerns related to its future. It excludes treats to the international peace and stability, which are addressed under code.1.	‘Russia’s war of aggression constitutes a tectonic shift in European history. We discussed how the EU can live up to its responsibilities in this new reality, protecting our citizens, values, democracies, and our European model.’ ‘The European Council held a strategic debate on security and defence, taking into account the new security situation in Europe which is a major shift in its strategic environment.’
Emotions experienced	Code.5. Resolve/ togetherness	This code refers to the expressions of firm determination to defend international law, rules-based order, peace, international security and stability. It might also include statements or words of unity and togetherness (with partners, international community and EU member states) that increase the impact of decisiveness to act together. It includes words like univocally condemn, our unity, firmness, readiness to defend …). It excludes statements of solidarity with the victims, which is addressed by code.6	‘The EU has reacted swiftly and decisively to [Russian agression]…’ ‘the international community is firm, upstanding and ready to defend these principles’ ‘[The summit was] an opportunity for us to affirm, once again, our unity: the unity of the European Union, of the member states, and unity with our partners, our allies and our friends around the world to defend international law and this rules-based order that offers the best assurances for peace, security and stability.’
	Code.6. Sympathy/solidarity	This code includes statements of solidarity, which put at the centre victims (civilians, refugees, Uranian people) or those who help the victims (frontline states, NGOs and Europeans active on the field). This code includes words explicitly mentioning solidarity, help, assistance, support or expressions with connotations of pity, sadness in relation to the victims or guilt (because of the EU’s inability to prevent the war). In excludes statements referring to the EU’s sympathy with the international states acting with the EU as this has been covered by code.5.	‘Women and men are being killed, families being torn apart, hit directly by the horrors of war – a war we all thought was impossible in Europe a few days ago, with all the diplomatic efforts to counter the threat.’ ‘we expressed our commitment to continuing to show solidarity with refugees on the ground’ ‘We will not leave them [Ukranian people] alone.’
	Code.7. Anger/revenge	This code includes statements of condemnation; words that are emotionally loaded such as war, aggression, crime, and expressions which connote revenge such as holding (Russia) accountable for its wrongdoings.	‘Russia has decided to launch a brutal, savage war, based on despicable lies.’ ‘Russia, and its accomplice Belarus, bear full responsibility for this war of aggression and those responsible will be held to account for their crimes.’ “We are already hitting hard those who launched this war against you. ‘We will hold to account all those responsible for this war, and all those who violate the law of war and international humanitarian law.’
	Code.8. Fear/Anxiety	This category includes statements or expressions of concerns with regard to the future of the EU or about the negative impact of the situation on the EU, its stability and security as well as on EU citizens. These statements include words that emphasize the severity of the situation for the EU. It excludes fear words that describe the horror of war (such as savage war, the terror) as these have been categorized under the label ‘anger/revenge’ code.7 rather than fear. Fear also refers to the statements expressing the EU’s concerns about further escalation of the conflict and a large-scale war in Europe.	‘Russia’s war of aggression constitutes a tectonic shift in European history. We discussed how the EU can live up to its responsibilities in this new reality, protecting our citizens, values, democracies, and our European model.’ ‘It was not an ordinary meeting, it was a meeting where we were well aware of the gravity of the situation, of living in a time which perhaps represents a turning point and where it will be up to our generation in Europe, together with our partners around the world, to make the right choices, sensible choices, and to show courage…’ ‘we are in a particularly dangerous moment for Europe.’ ‘Sustained high energy prices have an increasingly negative impact on citizens and businesses, which is further compounded by the Russian military aggression against Ukraine’ ‘that there is great fear that there will be further action from Russia. We have an arsenal [of sanctions/measures], a capacity for action, we didn’t want to spend it all at once.’^1
	Code.9. Pride	This code includes statements that applaud either Ukrainians’ courage to defend their country as well EU values or EU/EU member states’ attitudes in helping Ukraine and victims of the war.	‘we would like to acknowledge and commend the dignity and courage of the Ukrainian people currently experiencing this dire situation.’* ‘we will continue to show solidarity … with those countries which, since the beginning of this war, have also been on the front line when it comes to providing a dignified reception for those fleeing the bombs and the war in Ukraine.’*
Action by the EU	Code.10 Verbal instruments	This code includes verbal statements by the EU, including condemnation, statements of unity-togetherness/international engagement, promise to deepen EU’s relations with Ukraine, threat to adopt more sanctions, call on Russia to stop war.	‘The European Council calls on Russia … to allow safe and unhindered humanitarian access and assistance to all persons in need.’* ‘We demand that Russia ceases its military action …’ ‘The EU strongly condemns the decision by President Putin to … ’ ‘The EU calls on the international community to demand from Russia the immediate end of this aggression.’ ‘we will help you to build a modern, democratic country. A forward-looking country, ready to embrace with confidence your European future, our common European future, your place in our common European family.’
	Code.11 Aid	EU decisions taken in response to the crisis, which involve aid to Ukraine, Ukrainian people or refugees, which range from humanitarian aid, financial aid to the provision of military equipment to Ukraine. It also includes statements concerning the EU’s support to Ukrainian authorities to facilitate the investigation and prosecution of any international crimes committed by Russia against Ukraine. It excludes statements with regard to the ‘political aid’ as its meaning was not made clear by the EU, hence could possibly include other EU measures, such as verbal instruments or sanctions, which are addressed under code. 10 and code.12 respectively).	‘We also discussed support for the Ukrainian people and for Ukraine, and how we could mobilise both financing capacities and humanitarian support.’ ‘We also had the opportunity to address the question of support for Ukraine, which as you know means military equipment. This is a first for the European Union, as it also includes lethal equipment. As regards financial support, I would like to highlight the decision to work towards the successful establishment of a Ukraine Solidarity Trust Fund.’ “The European Union supports all measures to ensure accountability for human rights violations and violations of international humanitarian law in Ukraine by Russian Armed forces.
	Code.12 Sanctions	Explicit references to the restrictive measures and sanctions adopted in response to violation of norms.	‘We have decided, together with all our partners, on unprecedented sanctions against the Russian leadership … ’ ‘With our allies, we are cutting off Russia and its economy from the international financial system. This will severely cripple Russia’s ability to operate globally.’
	Code.13 Further EU integration	Decisions involving further EU integration, in particular related to defence, strategic autonomy and EU’s energy independence.	‘the situation also shows how much the discussion about the goal of building a Europe more focused on sovereignty or strategic autonomy, reveals its full significance when we are faced with the events we are witnessing today.’

*Translated to English from the original text in French by the author.