Cumulative disadvantage during childhood: The association between moving and accumulated neighborhood deprivation over a child’s life course in the Netherlands

Figures & data

Table 1. Mobility indicators for the childhood mobility trajectories of children born in metropolitan areas who moved (N = 30,675).

	Childhood mobility trajectory
	Nearby pre-school-aged	Nearby school-aged	Distant to more dense area	Distant to Less dense area	Frequent
	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean	Mean
Mobility indicators
Frequency	1.29	1.17	1.37	1.75	3.71
1 move	0.73	0.85	0.63	0.50	0.00
2 moves	0.26	0.14	0.37	0.32	0.00
3 moves	0.01	0.02	0.00	0.12	0.58
4 moves	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.04	0.24
5 moves	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.01	0.10
>5 moves	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.00	0.07
Mean age at first move	3.32	10.49	3.05	3.30	2.34
Average distance moved (km)	0.94	3.39	17.10	28.73	12.00
Change in population density (population/km^2)	16.55	31.00	152.95	−3,036.05	75.85
N children	8,622	5,809	6,933	6,136	3,175
% of children*	19	13	15	13	7
% of movers	28	19	23	20	10

Note: *33% of the children (n = 15,109) do not move during childhood.

Source: System of Social Statistical Datasets, Statistics Netherlands (own calculations).

Table 2. Socioeconomic characteristics of origin neighborhoods in metropolitan areas.

	Neighborhood of origin SES quintile
	Q1	Q2	Q3	Q4	Q5	Total
Neighborhood SES indicators
% employed	57	66	69	72	75	69
% social benefit recipients	26	16	11	9	7	12
% low income	29	19	15	13	10	16
% high income	13	21	24	29	40	28
Median standardized household income (x1,000)	15.90	18.34	19.40	20.58	23.80	20.45
Mean SES factor score	−2.98	−0.72	0.15	0.93	2.27	0.39
N neighborhoods	390	221	269	436	735	2051
% neighborhoods	19	11	13	21	36	100
N children study population born in neighborhood	13170	5249	5256	7719	14390	45784
% children study population born in neighborhood	29	11	11	17	31	100

Source: System of Social Statistical Datasets, Statistics Netherlands (own calculations).

Figure 1. Local spatial autocorrelation (Moran’s I) of neighborhood (a) childhood mobility rates and (b) socioeconomic status; and bivariate local spatial autocorrelation (Moran’s I) of neighborhood childhood mobility rates and socioeconomic status for (c) the total country and (d) metropolitan areas. (p < .05).

Results are visualized for neighborhoods where at least 10 children of the study population resided in 1999.

Source: System of Social Statistical Datasets, Statistics Netherlands (own calculations).

Table 3. Descriptive statistics on the selected study population for all children born in the Netherlands (N = 169,870) and children born in the metropolitan areas (N = 45,784).

	All children		Children born in metropolitan areas
	Mean	Sd	Mean	Sd
Childhood internal mobility (0–16)
Non-movers	0.41		0.33
Nearby pre-school-aged movers	0.19		0.19
Nearby school-aged movers	0.13		0.13
Distant movers to more dense area	0.14		0.15
Distant movers to less dense area	0.06		0.13
Frequent movers	0.07		0.07
Neighborhood socioeconomic status
Neighborhood of origin
Q1 (very deprived)	0.22		0.29
Q2	0.19		0.12
Q3	0.20		0.12
Q4	0.20		0.17
Q5 (very affluent)	0.19		0.31
Years of exposure to Q1 neighborhood (0–16)	3.47	5.79	4.32	6.29
Background characteristics
Migrant background
No migrant background	0.83		0.69
Moroccan	0.03		0.07
Turkish	0.03		0.05
Surinamese	0.02		0.06
Antillean	0.01		0.01
Other	0.08		0.11
Gender
Male	0.51		0.52
Female	0.49		0.48
Labor force participation mother	0.71	0.35	0.67	0.37
Labor force participation father	0.91	0.20	0.89	0.23
Average standardized household income (x1,000)	24.41	13.20	25.49	15.16
Parental union
Stable union	0.76		0.71
Dissolution	0.20		0.20
One parent (and partner)	0.04		0.07
Start living together	0.01		0.02
Degree of urbanity municipality of birth
Low	0.38		0.15
Moderate	0.21		0.17
High	0.25		0.20
Very high	0.16		0.49
Metropolitan area at birth
Amsterdam	0.07		0.27
Rotterdam	0.08		0.28
The Hague	0.04		0.15
Utrecht	0.08		0.30
Other	0.73
Total (N)	169,870		45,784

Source: System of Social Statistical Datasets, Statistics Netherlands (own calculations).

Figure 2. Relative risk ratios childhood mobility trajectories (ref. = non-movers) by neighborhood of origin SES quintile (ref. = intermediate) controlling for background characteristics for children born in the metropolitan areas (N = 45,784).

Additional control variables included are as follows: migrant background, gender, labor force participation mother/father, average standardized household income, parental union, degree of urbanity and metropolitan area of the first place of residence. See Table A1 in the appendix for the full model.

Source: System of Social Statistical Datasets, Statistics Netherlands (own calculations).

Figure 3. Years of exposure to neighborhood deprivation by childhood mobility trajectory (ref.=non-movers) controlling for background characteristics for children born in the metropolitan areas (N = 45,784) and by neighborhood of origin SES (Q1: N = 13,170; Q2: N = 5,249; Q3 = 5,256; Q4: N = 7,719; Q5 = 14,390).

Additional control variables included are as follows: migrant background, gender, labor force participation mother/father, average standardized household income, parental union and degree of urbanity and metropolitan area of the first place of residence. See Table A2 in the appendix for the full models.

Source: System of Social Statistical Datasets, Statistics Netherlands (own calculations).

Table A1. Relative risk ratios (RRR) multinomial logistic regression of childhood mobility trajectories for children born in the metropolitan areas.

	Nearby pre-school-aged	Nearby school-aged	Distant more dense area	Distant less dense area	Frequent
	RRR se	RRR se	RRR se	RRR se	RRR se
Origin neighborhood SES (ref.= Q3)
Q1 (very deprived)	1.601***	1.507***	1.873***	1.490***	1.820***
	0.119	0.117	0.184	0.134	0.176
Q2	1.209*	1.137	1.196	1.130	1.291*
	0.101	0.090	0.125	0.111	0.137
Q4	0.829**	0.824**	0.845	0.840	0.875
	0.057	0.053	0.076	0.085	0.075
Q5 (very affluent)	0.682***	0.845**	0.696***	0.649***	0.737***
	0.046	0.051	0.058	0.059	0.061
Migrant background (ref. = no)
Moroccan	1.289***	1.861***	0.708***	0.174***	0.483***
	0.096	0.134	0.059	0.017	0.062
Turkish	1.716***	1.683***	0.747**	0.177***	0.695**
	0.124	0.137	0.072	0.021	0.089
Surinamese	1.037	1.046	1.294***	0.666***	1.005
	0.074	0.084	0.094	0.050	0.097
Antillean	1.538**	1.473*	1.563**	0.776	1.460**
	0.234	0.225	0.222	0.119	0.213
Other	1.271***	1.205***	1.306***	0.731***	0.980
	0.063	0.067	0.068	0.040	0.067
Gender (ref.=male)
Female	1.000	0.980	0.961	0.961	1.016
	0.028	0.031	0.028	0.030	0.041
Labor force participation mother	1.119*	1.020	1.054	0.962	0.889
	0.050	0.050	0.054	0.053	0.060
Labor force participation father	1.295***	1.214*	1.377***	1.642***	1.120
	0.095	0.094	0.114	0.147	0.112
Log average standardized household income	1.149***	1.167***	1.206***	1.245***	1.023
	0.021	0.022	0.022	0.026	0.035
Parental union (ref.=stable union)
Dissolution	1.882***	3.348***	2.010***	2.422***	14.046***
	0.081	0.160	0.090	0.117	0.820
One parent (and partner)	1.446***	1.887***	1.414***	1.222*	7.165***
	0.104	0.135	0.105	0.095	0.677
Start living together	3.730***	2.573***	4.006***	3.215***	9.135***
	0.432	0.356	0.450	0.381	1.365
Degree of urbanity (ref.=low)
Moderate	1.258***	1.065	1.153	1.385	1.311***
	0.075	0.063	0.085	0.877	0.104
High	1.198**	0.945	0.926	28.739***	1.094
	0.069	0.054	0.066	15.509	0.090
Very high	1.211**	0.839**	1.269**	72.418***	1.250*
	0.082	0.055	0.103	38.800	0.111
Metropolitan area (ref.= The Hague)
Amsterdam	0.635***	0.925	1.009	1.027	0.661***
	0.048	0.066	0.092	0.080	0.059
Rotterdam	0.890	1.008	0.892	0.493***	0.945
	0.063	0.066	0.083	0.044	0.083
Utrecht	0.905	0.929	1.086	0.916	1.034
	0.067	0.063	0.099	0.075	0.096
Constant	0.344***	0.240***	0.245***	0.010***	0.066***
	0.042	0.028	0.038	0.006	0.010
N	45,784

Note: Reference-category outcome variable=non-movers.

*p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001

Source: System of Social Statistical Datasets, Statistics Netherlands (own calculations).

Table A2. Beta coefficients linear regression of duration of exposure to neighborhood deprivation for children born in the metropolitan areas and separate models by neighborhood of origin SES quintiles.

	Total	Born in Q1	Born in Q2	Born in Q3	Born in Q4	Born in Q5
	b se	b se	b se	b se	b se	b se
Childhood mobility trajectory (ref.=non-movers)
Nearby pre-school-aged	0.514***	-2.227***	-0.927*	0.941***	0.786***	0.478***
	0.093	0.198	0.402	0.200	0.129	0.059
Nearby school-aged	0.341***	-1.670***	-1.126***	0.200	0.469***	0.309***
	0.082	0.119	0.284	0.110	0.086	0.036
Distant more dense area	-0.524***	-5.689***	-2.665***	1.017***	0.933***	0.760***
	0.133	0.190	0.482	0.202	0.114	0.063
Distant less dense area	-2.583***	-8.498***	-4.071***	0.192	0.136	0.469***
	0.176	0.167	0.441	0.223	0.160	0.067
Frequent	0.238	-4.528***	-1.166*	1.517***	1.637***	1.373***
	0.138	0.212	0.464	0.231	0.198	0.116
Migrant background (ref. = no)
Moroccan	5.659***	1.949***	2.333***	1.215**	0.972*	0.661*
	0.198	0.148	0.428	0.411	0.425	0.294
Turkish	6.158***	2.209***	3.901***	0.310	0.748	0.516
	0.217	0.146	0.578	0.355	0.512	0.360
Surinamese	3.120***	1.596***	1.957***	2.101***	0.717*	0.426**
	0.182	0.162	0.385	0.578	0.290	0.159
Antillean	2.618***	1.607***	1.384**	0.043	0.339	0.250
	0.233	0.268	0.501	0.594	0.400	0.265
Other	1.800***	1.393***	0.720**	0.538**	0.263*	0.180**
	0.116	0.138	0.241	0.172	0.113	0.070
Gender (ref.=male)
Female	0.010	0.036	0.213	-0.008	-0.021	-0.027
	0.040	0.070	0.126	0.071	0.054	0.030
Labor force participation mother	-1.446***	-0.774***	-0.638**	-0.567***	-0.257**	-0.232***
	0.081	0.130	0.208	0.147	0.081	0.055
Labor force participation father	-1.636***	-0.170	-1.127**	-1.415***	-0.953**	-0.588**
	0.129	0.123	0.345	0.350	0.290	0.188
Log average standardized household income	-0.832***	-1.182***	-0.639***	-0.371***	-0.221***	-0.112***
	0.037	0.070	0.091	0.051	0.031	0.012
Parental union (ref.=stable union)
Dissolution	0.350***	0.265*	0.722***	0.496***	0.422***	0.263***
	0.059	0.108	0.181	0.122	0.092	0.053
One parent (and partner)	2.685***	0.972***	1.148***	1.593***	1.454***	0.972***
	0.132	0.110	0.297	0.329	0.285	0.264
Start living together	1.046***	-0.353	0.875*	0.809	0.850*	0.761**
	0.182	0.240	0.441	0.536	0.418	0.290
Degree of urbanity (ref.=low)
Moderate	0.312*	1.389	1.407*	0.232	0.150	0.054
	0.130	0.867	0.708	0.140	0.134	0.036
High	1.456***	1.647*	4.179***	0.877***	0.620***	0.288***
	0.163	0.813	0.782	0.162	0.121	0.047
Very high	5.255***	3.619***	4.786***	1.527***	1.247***	0.416***
	0.251	0.770	0.784	0.248	0.178	0.059
Metropolitan area (ref.=The Hague)
Amsterdam	0.399	-0.124	-0.803	0.291	-0.051	0.008
	0.306	0.156	0.740	0.263	0.182	0.059
Rotterdam	0.660	0.244	-1.790*	-0.091	0.169	0.159*
	0.359	0.159	0.834	0.233	0.204	0.070
Utrecht	0.280	-0.313	-0.610	0.389	0.160	0.041
	0.311	0.241	1.016	0.226	0.191	0.055
Constant	2.371***	10.526***	3.594***	1.190**	0.694*	0.516**
	0.330	0.810	0.996	0.390	0.326	0.190
N	45,784	13,170	5,249	5,256	7,719	14,390

*p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001

Source: System of Social Statistical Datasets, Statistics Netherlands (own calculations).