Poor sleep quality during COVID-19 pandemic restrictions associated with reduced psychological wellbeing in healthcare students

Figures & data

Table 1. Participant demographics by faculty of enrolment (percentages are as a function of column totals).

		Physiotherapy		Nursing		Medicine
		n	%	n	%	n	%	Total
Sex	Male	8	14.5%	9	8.6%	51	30.7%	68
	Female	47	85.5%	96	91.4%	115	69.3%	258
Age	Under 18	2	3.6%	1	1.0%	0	0.0%	3
	18–24	45	81.8%	89	84.8%	59	35.5%	193
	25–29	4	7.3%	6	5.7%	60	36.1%	70
	30–34	3	5.5%	4	3.8%	31	18.7%	38
	35–39	1	1.8%	2	1.9%	12	7.2%	15
	40+	0	0.0%	3	2.9%	4	2.4%	7
Year of study	1st	20	36.4%	46	43.8%	45	27.1%	111
	2nd	16	29.1%	32	30.5%	36	21.7%	84
	3rd	13	23.6%	27	25.7%	26	15.7%	66
	4th	6	10.9%	0	0.0%	59	35.5%	65

Figure 1. Self-rated sleep quality during COVID-19 restrictions against PSQI global score.

Table 2. PSQI scores during COVID restrictions.

PSQI component	Mean ± SD	Range
Global Score	7.35 ± 3.57	0–21
Sleep quality	1.44 ± 0.64	0–3
Sleep latency	1.76 ± 1.02	0–3
Sleep duration	0.24 ± 0.59	0–3
Sleep efficiency	0.41 ± 0.79	0–3
Sleep disturbance	1.46 ± 0.71	0–3
Sleep medication	0.46 ± 0.96	0–3
Daytime sleep dysfunction	1.57 ± 0.84	0–3

Global score range (0–21), a score of 5 or greater in indicative of poor sleep quality.

Component range (0–3).

Figure 2. (a) Comparison of bedtimes to nearest half-hour, before and during COVID restrictions. (b) Comparison of wake times to nearest half-hour, before and during COVID restrictions.

Table 3. Change to positive sleep hygiene behaviours during COVID-19 restrictions and mean PSQI global score.

Response	More or same as usual	None or less than usual	TOTAL
Morning Sunlight exposure (>15 mins)	127 (39.8%)	192 (60.2)	319 (100%)
PSQI mean	6.55*	7.90*
Physical activity	138 (43.1%)	182 (56.9%)	320 (100%)
PSQI mean	6.46*	8.55*

*p < .05.

Table 4. Change to negative sleep hygiene behaviours during COVID-19 restrictions and mean PSQI global score.

Response	More than usual	None or less than usual	Same as usual	TOTAL
Technology use immediately before bed	128 (40%)	24 (7.5%)	168 (52.5)	320 (100%)
PSQI mean	8.16	7.15	6.77*
Napping	105 (32.8%)	183 (57.2%)	32 (10%)	320 (100%)
PSQI mean	8.55*	6.74*	6.98*

*p < .05.

Table 5. Effect of COVID restrictions on frequency of experiencing negative emotions and mean PSQI global score.

Emotion	More often or slightly more often		No change, slightly less or less often		Total
Stressed	211	67%	104	33%	315
Mean PSQI	7.73*		6.52*
Anxious or uncertain	206	65.6%	108	34.4%	314
Mean PSQI	7.94*		6.16*
Upset	160	51%	154	49%	314
Mean PSQI	8.28*		6.34*

Note: * p < .05.

Table 6. Effect of COVID restrictions on frequency of experiencing positive emotions and mean PSQI global score.

Emotion	No change, slightly more or more often		Slightly less or less often		Total
Relaxed	183	58.5%	130	41.5%	313
Mean PSQI	6.63*		8.30*
Motivated	82	26.2%	231	73.8%	313
Mean PSQI	5.05		7.57
Happy	186	59.4%	127	40.6%	313
Mean PSQI	6.80*		8.13*

*p < .05.

Table 7. Effect of COVID restrictions on experience of symptoms associated with depression (DSM-V) and mean PSQI global score.

Symptoms	More often		Slightly more often		No change		Slightly less often		Less often		Total
Poor sleep or oversleeping	119	37.8%	107	34.0%	70	22.2%	13	4.1%	6	1.9%	315
Mean PSQI	9.44		6.93		4.90		6.19		3.42
Lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities	66	21.0%	96	30.5%	127	40.3%	18	5.7%	8	2.5%	315
Mean PSQI	9.92		7.09		6.32		7.19		5.13
Guilty or low self-esteem	87	27.6%	97	30.8%	117	37.1%	9	2.9%	5	1.6%	315
Mean PSQI	9.07		7.35		6.20		5.78		5.80
Lacking energy or fatigue	118	37.6%	110	35.0%	67	21.3%	11	3.5%	8	2.5%	314
Mean PSQI	9.07		6.85		5.50		6.68		4.94
Unable to concentrate	111	35.2%	114	36.2%	74	23.5%	11	3.5%	5	1.6%	315
Mean PSQI	9.28		6.68		5.74		6.05		4.90
Changes in appetite (increased or decreased)	83	26.4%	90	28.7%	132	42.0%	6	1.9%	3	1.0%	314
Mean PSQI	9.58		7.19		6.08		8.00		3.83
Agitated or unable to get comfortable	69	21.9%	94	29.8%	140	44.4%	5	1.6%	7	2.2%	315
Mean PSQI	10.03		7.81		5.89		4.50		5.00

Figure 3. Number of hours dedicated to sleep education in current degree by faculty.

Figure 4. Self-rating of “sleep hygiene” knowledge by faculty.