Disaggregating the effects of daytime and nighttime light exposures on obesity, overweight, prostate and breast cancer morbidity worldwide

Figures & data

Figure 1. Global changes in breast and prostate cancer incidence ASRs (a) and overweight/obesity prevalence rates, % (b).

Source: Diagrammed using data from the Global Health Data Exchange GHD (2019) and WHO (2022b) respectively.

Notes: Overweight is defined as BMI ≥ 25, while obesity is defined as BMI ≥ 30; the diagrams feature age-standardized rates (ASRs) are for adults only.

Figure 2. ALAN emissions and solar radiation worldwide.

(a) ALAN flux in 2014 (nanowatts/cm²/sr); (b) Solar radiation (kWh/m²).

Sources: Mapped using data from NOAA (2020) and Agency et al. (2021), respectively.

Notes: The raster resolution is ~920 m per pixel for ALAN and 250 m per pixel for solar radiation.

Figure 3. Population-weighted ALAN and solar radiation levels by countries worldwide.

(a) Population-weighted ALAN levels (nanowatts/cm2/sr) in 2014; (b) Population-weighted solar radiation levels (kWh/m²) in 2016.

Source: Mapped using data from NOAA (2020) and Agency et al. (2021).

Note: Both ALAN and solar radiation averages are grouped into five classes using the Jenks natural breaks method. Due to the fact that actual exposures depend on population distribution within countries, a population-weighting procedure was implemented following Kloog et al. (2008) and using data from Rose et al. (2021) (see text for explanations).

Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the research variables.

Variable	Unit of measurement	Year	Min	Max	Mean	SD
Overweight	Prevalence ASR (%)	1998	9.5	68.6	37.6	15.6
		2016	18.3	77.6	47.5	15.4
		1998–2016, %^a	92.6	13.1	26.5	−1.0
Obesity	Prevalence ASR (%)	1998	0.6	35.3	11.5	6.8
		2016	2.1	47.3	18.2	8.7
		1998–2016, %^a	250.0	34.0	58.8	26.8
Prostate cancer	ASR per 100,000	2006	7.3	123.1	44.0	30.6
		2016	8.0	123.1	46.0	28.3
		2006–2016, %^a	8.9	0.1	4.4	−7.5
Breast cancer	ASR per 100,000	2006	13.1	114.6	45.4	26.9
		2016	14.0	111.7	47.7	23.9
		2006–2016, %^a	6.3	−2.5	5.1	−11.4
GDP	US$	1996	145.2	52,571	6,364	10,729
		2006	194.7	89,739	10,273	16,499
		2014	371.3	118,823	14,038	20,653
		1996–2006, %^a	34.1	70.7	61.4	53.8
		1996–2014, %^a	155.8	126.0	120.6	92.5
GINI	%	1996	23.1	69.5	40.2	9.8
		2006	24.4	64.2	39.1	8.5
		2014	24.0	63.0	37.8	7.7
		1996–2006,%^a	5.5	−7.6	−2.8	−13.9
		1996–2014, %^a	3.8	−9.4	−6.1	−21.5
Unhealthy food consumption	(kcal/capita/day)	1996	49.0	1,540.0	642.6	311.1
		2006	123.0	1,506.0	694.6	302.6
		2014	149.0	1,499.0	709.8	299.8
		1996–2006, %^a	151.0	−2.2	8.1	−2.7
		1996–2014, %^a	204.1	−2.7	10.5	−3.6
ALAN	nanowatts/cm2/sr	1996	-	59.5	24.3	15.0
		2006	-	58.9	24.6	14.1
		2014	3.0	61.1	24.8	13.8
		1996–2006,%^a	-	−1.0	1.1	−6.1
		1996–2014,%^a	-	2.6	2.1	−7.7
Solar radiation	kWh/m^2	1998	0.0	6.3	4.6	1.1
		2006	0.0	6.3	4.6	1.1
		2016	0.0	6.3	4.6	1.1
		1998–2016, %^a	45.6	−0.1	0.0	−0.5
		2006–2016, %^a	−64.6	−0.1	0.0	−0.3

^aInter-year change, %.

Figure 4. Morbidity rates by countries worldwide in 2016.

(a) Breast cancer (BC) incidence rate per 100,000 (ASR); (b) Prostate cancer (PC) incidence rate per 100,000 (ASR); (c) Obesity prevalence among adults (ASR, %); (d) Overweight prevalence among adults (ASR, %).

Source: Mapped using data from GHD (2019) and WHO (2022b). The rates are grouped into five classes using the Jenks natural breaks method.

Notes: Other years and inter-year changes are reported in Appendixes C-F.

Figure 4. (Continued).

Figure 5. T-statistics of the ALAN and solar radiation variables, estimated for separate years between 1998 and 2016 for different types of morbidity.

(a) BC; (b) PC; (c) Obesity; (d) Overweight.

Notes: Based on the models reported in Appendix G, Tables G1-G18. Dotted red lines indicate a 0.01 two-tailed significance level, dotted black lines indicate a 0.05 significance level (two-tailed).

Figure 6. Relative contribution of different factors to obesity (a), overweight (b), BC (c), and PC (d).

Notes: The factors are ranked based on Model 1 and Model 22 for obesity and overweight (see Appendixes, Tables G1 and G7) and Model 44 and Model 55 for BC and PC (see Appendixes, Tables G13 and G16); the variables are sorted in the order of diminishing contribution, with the relative contribution of the strongest variable conditionally set to 100%.

Figure A1. Population-weighted national averages of solar radiation by countries worldwide, kWh/m².

(a) Year 1998; (b) Year 2006, (c) Year 2016, (d) Percent change between 1998 and 2016; (e) Percent change between 2006 and 2016.

Source: Authors’ calculations applied to Agency et al (2021) - Global Solar Atlas (see text for explanations); Note: Solar radiation average is grouped into five classes using the Jenks natural breaks method. The solar radiation raster is annually invariant. The changes in the maps are due to changes in the population distribution (see text for explanations).

Figure A1. (Continued).

Figure B1. Population-weighted ALAN averages by countries worldwide, nanowatts/cm2/sr.

(a) Year 1996; (b) Year 2006, (c) Year 2014, (d) Percent change between 1996 and 2006; (e) Percent change between 1996 and 2014.

Source: Authors’ calculations applied to NOAA (2020) data (see text for explanations); Note: ALAN averages are grouped into five classes using the Jenks natural breaks method.

Figure B1. (Continued).

Figure C1. BC rates by countries worldwide.

(a) Year 2006; (b) Year 2016; (c) BC rate change between 2006 and 2016, %.

Source: Mapped using GHD (2019) - Global Health Data Exchange; the BC rates are grouped into five classes using the Jenks natural breaks method.

Figure D1. BC rates by countries worldwide.

(a) Year 2006; (b) Year 2016; PC rate change between 2006 and 2016, %.

Source: Mapped using GHD (2019); the PC rates are grouped into five classes using the Jenks natural breaks method.

Figure E1. Overweight ASR by countries worldwide, %.

(a) Year 1998, (b) Year 2016; and (c) Obesity rate change between 1998 and 2016, %.

Source: Mapped using WHO (2022b) - the World Health Organization countrywide database: the obesity rates are grouped into five classes using the Jenks natural breaks method.

Figure F1. Overweight ASR by countries worldwide, %.

(a) Year 1998, (b) Year 2016; (c) Rate change between 1998 and 2016, %.

Source: Mapped using WHO (2022a) - the World Health Organization countrywide database. Overweight rates are grouped into five classes using the Jenks natural breaks method.

Table G1. Factors affecting obesity rates in individual countries of the world (Dependent variable – Obesity, % ASR in the years 1998; 1999; 2000 and 2001; explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictor	Model 1		Model 2		Model 3		Model 4
	1998		1999		2000		2001
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	7.350	3.119***	8.113	3.324***	6.924	2.76***	8.376	3.184***
GDP per capita (US$)	2.5E^−4	−5.37***	2E^−4	−5.31***	2E^−4	−4.773***	2E^−4	−4.63***
GINI	0.003	0.075*	−0.005	−0.1*	−0.006	−0.128*	−0.004	−0.087*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.003	1.498*	0.004	2.184**	0.004	1.908*	0.003	1.528*
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.319	7.85***	0.306	7.232***	0.318	7.36***	0.322	7.035***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.556	−1.188	−0.523	−1.066	−0.285	−0.57	−0.424	−0.804
Regional dummies:
Africa	−2.796	−2.404**	−3.192	−2.679***	−3.014	−2.442**	−3.309	−2.561**
Asia	−4.028	−3.788***	−4.434	−4.052***	−4.218	−3.76***	−4.443	−3.742***
Oceania	13.518	5.697***	13.471	5.474***	13.777	5.488***	13.990	5.344***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.726		0.715		0.714		0.699
R^2- adjusted	0.709		0.697		0.695		0.679
F	40.501***		38.335***		38.045***		35.449
SEE^d	3.712		3.842		3.914		4.078

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G2. Factors affecting obesity rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – obesity, % ASR in the years 2002; 2003; 2004 and 2005; explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 5		Model 6		Model 7		Model 8
	2002		2003		2004		2005
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	6.749	2.572**	6.841	2.5**	10.838	3.668***	8.183	2.882***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−4.678***	0.000	−4.493***	0.000	−3.744***	0.000	−4.679***
GINI	0.033	0.642*	0.021	0.397*	0.065	1.153*	−0.003	−0.056*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.003	1.644*	0.004	1.995**	0.007	3.05***	0.005	2.449**
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.341	7.239***	0.328	6.991***	0.274	7.193***	0.319	7.196***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.549	−1.031*	−0.424	−0.787*	−2.033	−3.932***	−0.506	−0.887*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−2.653	−2.006**	−3.006	−2.281**	N/A	N/A	−2.998	−2.205**
Asia	−3.781	−3.157***	−4.047	−3.336***	−2.548	−2.441**	−4.405	−3.527**
Oceania	15.250	5.761***	13.848	5.25***	14.802	5.419***	14.513	5.372***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.707		0.708		0.667		0.711
R^2- adjusted	0.688		0.689		0.648		0.692
F	36.771***		36.999***		35.26***		37.474***
SEE^d	4.096		4.144		4.461		4.246

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G3. Factors affecting obesity rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – obesity, % ASR in the years 2006; 2007; 2008 and 2009; explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 9		Model 10		Model 11		Model 12
	2006		2007		2008		2009
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	8.847	3.07***	6.729	2.245**	8.368	2.739***	9.681	2.861***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−4.479***	0.000	−4.617***	0.000	−3.789***	0.000	−3.234***
GINI	−0.011	−0.195*	0.045	0.788*	−0.001	−0.021*	−0.008	−0.125*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.007	3.132***	0.007	3.408***	0.006	2.775***	0.007	2.912***
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.296	7.05***	0.361	8.320***	0.318	7.154***	0.262	5.634***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.650	−1.144*	−1.223	−2.404**	−0.475	−0.799*	−0.472	−0.722*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−3.267	−2.468**	N/A	N/A	−3.330	−2.417**	−4.052	−2.719***
Asia	−4.612	−3.785***	−2.741	−2.726***	−4.908	−3.891***	−5.885	−4.322***
Oceania	13.945	5.197***	16.394	6.010***	14.622	5.246***	13.879	4.585***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.721		0.708		0.714		0.673
R^2- adjusted	0.702		0.692		0.696		0.651
F	39.324***		42.642***		38.154***		31.339***
SEE^d	4.234		4.360		4.387		4.764

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G4. Factors affecting obesity rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – obesity, % ASR in the years 2010; 2011; 2012 and 2013; explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 13		Model 14		Model 15		Model 16
	2010		2011		2012		2013
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	8.782	2.52**	10.220	2.89***	5.353	1.54*	7.678	2.166**
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−3.678***	0.000	−3.385***	0.000	−4.045***	0.000	−3.76***
GINI	0.023	0.339*	−0.001	−0.016*	0.044	0.633*	0.043	0.6*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.008	3.452***	0.008	3.365***	0.009	3.635***	0.009	3.754***
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.312	6.873***	0.236	5.183***	0.315	6.881***	0.301	6.781***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−1.307	−2.191**	−0.485	−0.72*	−0.883	−1.481*	−1.255	−2.043*
Regional dummies:
Africa	N/A	N/A	−4.548	−2.974***	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
Asia	−3.707	−3.163***	−5.878	−4.137***	−3.632	−3.063***	−3.514	−2.915***
Oceania	16.162	5.259***	13.419	4.254***	16.961	5.322***	17.212	5.307***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.65		0.659		0.651		0.647
R^2- adjusted	0.63		0.637		0.632		0.627
F	32.609***		29.475***		32.844***		32.243***
SEE^d	4.955		4.978		5.071		5.166

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G5. Factors affecting obesity rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – obesity, % ASR in the years 2014; 2015 and 2016; explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 17		Model 18		Model 19
	2014		2015		2016
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	5.502	1.571*	6.310	1.724**	10.502	2.910***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−3.963***	0.000	−3.630***	0.000	−3.463***
GINI	0.048	0.659*	0.050	0.651*	−0.001	−0.014*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.010	4.049***	0.011	4.571***	0.010	4.327***
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.324	7.123***	0.292	6.58***	0.340	7.621***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.937	−1.529*	−1.056	−1.666**	−1.280	−2.062**
Regional dummies:
Oceania	−3.605	−3.016***	−3.692	−2.961***	−3.508	−2.877***
Asia	18.058	5.577***	17.107	5.148***	17.831	5.557***
No. of obs.	131		131		131
R^2	0.658		0.643		0.664
R^2- adjusted	0.638		0.622		0.645
F	33.768***		31.58***		34.793***
SEE^d	5.145		5.300		5.191

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2014, 2015, and 2016, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G6. Factors affecting obesity rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – obesity, % ASR in the years 2015 and 2016 explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 20		Model 21
	2015		2016
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	14.650	4.118***	12.925	3.588***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−2.490**	0.000	−2.599**
GINI	−0.019	−0.262*	0.010	0.14*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.011	4.929***	0.011	4.722***
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.353	6.872***	0.386	8.031***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−1.085	−1.579*	−1.418	−2.32**
Regional dummies:
Africa	−3.402	−2.226**	N/A	N/A
Asia	−4.382	−3.172***	−2.315	−1.986**
Oceania	14.738	4.796***	17.925	5.691***
No. of obs.	131		131
R^2	0.697		0.676
R^2- adjusted	0.678		0.657
F	35.157***		36.649***
SEE^d	4.895		5.102

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2015, and 2016, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G7. Factors affecting overweight rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – overweight, % ASR in the years 1998; 1999; 2000 and 2001 explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 22		Model 23		Model 24		Model 25
	1998		1999		2000		2001
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	33.886	7.136***	35.994	7.414***	33.389	6.77***	36.61	7.213***
GDP per capita (US$)	0	−4.502***	0	−4.634***	0	−4.095***	−0.0004	−4.161***
GINI	−0.024	−0.285*	−0.043	−0.476*	−0.04	−0.432*	−0.0392	−0.401*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.004	0.907*	0.006	1.534*	0.005	1.219*	0.00379	0.925*
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.685	8.364***	0.664	7.883***	0.679	7.999***	0.68405	7.738***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.1315	−1.392*	−1.331	−1.365*	−0.835	−0.849*	−1.1719	−1.150*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−10.969	−4.68***	−11.536	−4.867***	−11.173	−4.604***	−11.635	−4.667***
Asia	−11.213	−5.234***	−12.044	−5.533***	−11.426	−5.181***	−11.766	−5.136***
Oceania	19.475	4.073***	19.125	3.907***	19.453	3.941***	19.553	3.871***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.786		0.777		0.775		0.766
R^2- adjusted	0.771		0.763		0.761		0.751
F	55.859***		53.283***		52.653***		49.969***
SEE^d	7.480		7.641		7.695		7.870

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G8. Factors affecting overweight rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – overweight, % ASR in the years 2002; 2003; 2004 and 2005 explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 26		Model 27		Model 28		Model 29
	2002		2003		2004		2005
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	33.820	6.774***	34.961	6.763***	44.225	8.14***	37.482	7.212***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−4.27***	0.000	−4.1***	0.000	−2.946***	0.000	−4.298***
GINI	0.030	0.301*	−0.009	−0.087*	−0.001	−0.008*	−0.066	−0.64*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.004	0.927*	0.005	1.191*	0.008	1.855*	0.006	1.586*
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.719	8.029***	0.685	7.734***	0.503	6.586***	0.655	8.071***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−1.409	−1.39*	−1.131	−1.111*	−2.725	−2.348**	−1.151	−1.102*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−10.362	−4.118***	−11.213	−4.505***	−11.668	−4.404***	−11.109	−4.465***
Asia	−10.414	−4.571***	−11.061	−4.825***	−11.666	−4.831***	−11.552	−5.053***
Oceania	21.664	4.302***	18.509	3.714***	16.850	3.253***	19.094	3.861***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.772		0.77		0.748		0.774
R^2- adjusted	0.757		0.755		0.732		0.759
F	51.76***		51.079***		45.306***		52.143***
SEE^d	7.791		7.829		8.188		7.772

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2005, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G9. Factors affecting overweight rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – overweight, % ASR in the years 2006; 2007; 2008 and 2009 explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 30		Model 31		Model 32		Model 33
	2006		2007		2008		2009
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	39.087	7.432***	36.734	6.864***	38.163	7.105***	40.448	6.844***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−3.915***	0.000	−3.815***	0.000	−3.473***	0.000	−2.932***
GINI	−0.079	−0.753*	−0.013	−0.122*	−0.055	−0.515*	−0.063	−0.547*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.008	2.171**	0.008	2.046**	0.008	1.98**	0.009	2.243**
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.601	7.847***	0.655	7.94***	0.627	8.024***	0.511	6.299***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−1.460	−1.408*	−1.501	−1.452*	−1.210	−1.156*	−1.226	−1.073*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−11.675	−4.833***	−10.652	−4.342***	−11.503	−4.749***	−12.751	−4.899***
Asia	−11.779	−5.296***	−10.898	−4.903***	−11.878	−5.355***	−13.517	−5.685***
Oceania	17.678	3.61***	19.581	3.944***	18.193	3.712***	16.422	3.106***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.777		0.776		0.776		0.739
R^2- adjusted	0.762		0.762		0.761		0.722
F	53.05***		52.912***		52.845***		43.271***
SEE^d	7.727		7.718		7.715		8.320

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G10. Factors affecting overweight rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – overweight, % ASR in the years 2010; 2011; 2012 and 2013 explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 34		Model 35		Model 36		Model 37
	2010		2011		2012		2013
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	40.488	6.844***	41.411	6.816***	35.113	6.06***	38.824	6.68***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−2.876***	0.000	−2.954***	0.000	−3.233***	0.000	−2.938***
GINI	−0.070	−0.605*	−0.059	−0.487*	−0.024	−0.205*	−0.027	−0.230*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.009	2.134**	0.012	2.774***	0.010	2.364**	0.010	2.452**
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.515	6.32***	0.437	5.596***	0.496	6.179***	0.472	6.092***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−1.068	−0.929*	−1.120	−0.968*	−0.388	−0.352*	−0.985	−0.866*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−12.729	−4.86***	−13.614	−5.182***	−13.003	−5.042***	−12.690	−4.842***
Asia	−13.173	−5.516***	−13.221	−5.418***	−12.826	−5.467***	−12.424	−5.266***
Oceania	17.080	3.218***	14.711	2.715***	17.352	3.221***	17.464	3.216***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.735		0.723		0.733		0.729
R^2- adjusted	0.718		0.704		0.716		0.711
F	42.325***		39.730***		41.913***		40.976***
SEE^d	8.363		8.551		8.366		8.426

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G11. Factors affecting overweight rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – overweight, % ASR in the years 2014; 2015 and 2016 explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 38		Model 39		Model 40
	2014		2015		2016
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	35.397	6.233***	37.106	6.385***	43.628	7.706***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−3.234***	0.000	−2.99***	0.000	−2.849***
GINI	−0.017	−0.141*	−0.027	−0.218*	−0.098	−0.824*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.011	2.752***	0.012	3.18***	0.011	2.899***
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.507	6.455***	0.449	6.053***	0.525	7.046***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.575	−0.521*	−0.606	−0.538*	−1.128	−1.025*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−12.285	−4.776***	−12.849	−4.981***	−11.982	−4.725***
Asia	−12.225	−5.311***	−12.612	−5.381***	−11.882	−5.161***
Oceania	18.496	3.455***	16.483	3.073***	17.533	3.408***
No. of obs.	131		131		131
R^2	0.738		0.729		0.742
R^2- adjusted	0.72		0.711		0.725
F	42.854***		41.004***		43.906***
SEE^d	8.267		8.351		8.120

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2014, 2015, and 2016, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G12. Factors affecting overweight rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – overweight, % ASR in the years 2015 and 2016 explanatory 2-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 41		Model 42
	2015		2016
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	49.453	8.574***	47.221	8.328***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.000	−2.055**	0.000	−1.997***
GINI	−0.094	−0.80*	−0.077	−0.659**
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.015	4.324***	0.012	3.269***
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.610	7.318***	0.593	7.337***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−2.109	−1.892*	−1.410	−1.289*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−11.510	−4.644***	−11.617	−4.62***
Asia	−10.110	−4.512***	−9.824	−4.294***
Oceania	15.333	3.077***	17.744	3.494***
No. of obs.	131		131
R^2	0.755		0.748
R^2- adjusted	0.739		0.732
F	47.005***		45.35***
SEE^d	7.938		8.022

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2015, and 2016, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G13. Factors affecting breast cancer rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – breast cancer rate ASR in the years 2006; 2007; 2008 and 2009 explanatory 10-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 43		Model 44		Model 45		Model 46
	2006		2007		2008		2009
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	35.441	4.373***	37.575	4.736***	36.585	4.359***	37.661	4.442***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.001	5.485***	0.001	5.469***	0.001	5.9***	0.001	5.437***
GINI	−0.017	−0.116*	−0.035	−0.235*	−0.022	−0.141*	−0.026	−0.157*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.013	2.121**	0.010	1.748*	0.008	1.444*	0.011	1.834*
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.497	4.079***	0.542	4.519***	0.523	4.234***	0.519	4.103***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.243	−0.153*	0.060	0.039*	0.250	0.155*	−0.124	−0.077*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−20.636	−4.544***	−22.295	−5.078***	−21.819	−4.769***	−21.216	−4.601***
Asia	−16.144	−4.206***	−17.952	−4.778***	−16.865	−4.367***	−16.233	−4.103***
South America	−23.570	−4.797***	−25.220	−5.174***	−24.443	−4.782***	−23.543	−4.509***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.834		0.844		0.834		0.832
R^2- adjusted	0.823		0.833		0.823		0.821
F	76.678***		82.231***		76.551***		75.678***
SEE^d	11.360		11.086		11.470		11.480

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G14. Factors affecting breast cancer rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – breast cancer rate ASR in the years 2010; 2011; 2012 and 2013 explanatory 10-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 47		Model 48		Model 49		Model 50
	2010		2011		2012		2013
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	38.639	4.504***	37.252	4.235***	45.022	5.153***	33.767	4.009***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.001	5.131***	0.001	5.419***	0.001	5.547***	0.001	4.654***
GINI	0.021	0.12*	0.049	0.272*	0.067	0.364*	0.072	0.408*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.009	1.533*	0.009	1.524*	0.011	1.836*	0.012	2.163**
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.551	4.337***	0.512	3.972***	0.423	4.023***	0.518	4.54***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.703	−0.336*	−0.562	−0.349*	−2.626	−1.532*	−0.786	−0.494*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−19.952	−4.273***	−20.118	−4.270***	−17.278	−3.584***	−17.482	−3.838***
Asia	−15.562	−3.966***	−14.869	−3.720***	−13.072	−3.258***	−12.640	−3.262***
South America	−22.844	−4.355***	−22.594	−4.174***	−18.813	−3.501***	−20.268	−3.906***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.824		0.818		0.804		0.815
R^2- adjusted	0.812		0.806		0.791		0.803
F	71.289***		68.363***		62.447***		67.132***
SEE^d	11.507		11.559		11.711		11.122

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G15. Factors affecting breast cancer rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – breast cancer rate ASR in the years 2014; 2015 and 2016 explanatory 10-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 51		Model 52		Model 53
	2014		2015		2016
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	32.531	3.726***	33.119	3.705***	31.674	3.594***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.001	4.661***	0.000	3.91***	0.000	3.867***
GINI	0.090	0.496*	0.037	0.204*	0.117	0.642*
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.011	1.87*	0.015	2.439**	0.011	1.968*
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.502	4.404***	0.513	4.235***	0.563	4.871***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−0.313	−0.19*	−0.376	−0.224*	−0.404	−0.241*
Regional dummies:
Africa	−19.323	−4.07***	−17.776	−3.638***	−18.784	−3.96***
Asia	−13.901	−3.441***	−12.909	−3.14***	−14.004	−3.48***
South America	−21.810	−4.52***	−20.332	−3.802***	−22.236	−4.25***
No. of obs.	131		131		131
R^2	0.792		0.784		0.780
R^2- adjusted	0.778		0.770		0.765
F	58.094***		55.332***		53.933***
SEE^d	11.533		11.737		11.605

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2014, 2015, and 2016, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G16. Factors affecting prostate cancer rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – prostate cancer rate ASR in the years 2006; 2007; 2008 and 2009 explanatory 10-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 54		Model 55		Model 56		Model 57
	2006		2007		2008		2009
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	30.667	2.69***	32.204	2.799***	31.002	2.556**	32.680	2.656***
GDP per capita (US$)	0.001	5.019***	0.001	4.756***	0.001	4.715***	0.001	4.248***
GINI	0.430	2.128**	0.446	2.132**	0.460	2.065**	0.527	2.278**
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.011	1.265*	0.010	1.103*	0.008	0.878*	0.009	0.951*
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.407	2.296**	0.463	2.578**	0.465	2.479**	0.479	2.479**
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−4.996	−2.501**	−5.307	−2.629**	−4.981	−2.323**	−5.795	−2.702***
Regional dummies:
Asia	−22.058	−5.318***	−22.457	−5.342***	−22.235	−5.094***	−22.251	−4.981***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.668		0.672		0.649		0.641
R^2- adjusted	0.652		0.656		0.632		0.623
F	41.577***		42.249***		38.216***		36.863***
SEE^d	18.101		18.206		19.122		19.276

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G17. Factors affecting prostate cancer rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – prostate cancer rate ASR in the years 2010; 2011; 2012 and 2013 explanatory 10-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 58		Model 59		Model 60		Model 61
	2010		2011		2012		2013
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	33.913	2.932***	30.647	2.579**	32.579	2.740***	29.168	2.557**
GDP per capita (US$)	0.001	4.249***	0.001	4.168***	0.001	4.605***	0.001	3.824***
GINI	0.610	2.721***	0.690	3.02***	0.816	3.615***	0.786	3.518***
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.012	1.293*	0.010	1.16*	0.016	1.806*	0.010	1.265*
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.389	2.117**	0.417	2.247**	0.169	1.128*	0.430	2.665***
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−6.674	−3.265***	−6.653	−3.247***	−7.844	−3.774***	−7.146	−3.571***
Regional dummies:
Asia	−21.442	−5.104***	−20.900	−4.939***	−19.319	−4.585***	−20.234	−5.024***
No. of obs.	131		131		131		131
R^2	0.653		0.647		0.639		0.659
R^2- adjusted	0.636		0.630		0.622		0.642
F	38.906***		37.894***		36.641***		39.91***
SEE^d	18.297		18.251		18.009		17.242

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

Table G18. Factors affecting prostate cancer rates in individual countries of the world (dependent variable – prostate cancer rate ASR in the years 2014; 2015 and 2016 explanatory 10-year latency period, unless stated otherwise).

Predictors	Model 62		Model 63		Model 64
	2014		2015		2016
	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b	B^a	t^b
(Constant)	31.472	2.712***	31.856	2.699***	31.405	2.656**
GDP per capita (US$)	0.001	3.807***	0.001	3.732***	0.001	3.677***
GINI	0.755	3.308***	0.722	3.176***	0.773	3.35***
Unhealthy food consumption (kcal/capita/day)	0.013	1.615*	0.013	1.574*	0.013	1.648*
ALAN, nanowatts/cm2/sr	0.362	2.328**	0.381	2.32**	0.385	2.44**
Solar Radiation^c, kWh/m^2	−7.469	−3.738***	−7.131	−3.551***	−7.490	−3.684***
Regional dummies:
Asia	−20.304	−5.098***	−20.587	−5.184***	−20.723	−5.194***
No. of obs.	131		131		131
R^2	0.653		0.650		0.650
R^2- adjusted	0.637		0.633		0.633
F	38.966***		38.137***		38.41***
SEE^d	17.193		17.223		17.188

ALAN=artificial light-at-night; SEE=standard error of the estimate. ^aUnstandardized regression coefficient; ^bt-statistic; ^cSolar radiation variable is taken for years 2014, 2015, and 2016, that is, simultaneously, without a latency period; ^dSEE, standard error of the estimate; * Indicates a 0.1 two-tailed significance level; ** indicates a 0.05 significance level; *** indicates a 0.01 significance level.

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