Effect of recommendations of breakfast and late-evening snack habits on body composition and blood pressure: A pilot randomized trial

Figures & data

Table 1. The characteristics of the participants at baseline by intervention groups.

	Both, n = 41		Breakfast, n = 42		No night snack, n = 42
	n or mean	% or SD	n or mean	% or SD	n or mean	% or SD	p
Sex, Female (%)	26	63.41	26	61.90	21	50.00	0.395
Full-time student status, (%)	36	87.80	39	92.86	39	92.86	0.645
Prepare food on his/her own (%)	31	75.61	35	83.33	34	82.93	0.607
Food cost (NT$/month)	1421	659	1331	544	1495	608	0.468
Food security status (%)*
Secure	23	56.10	19	45.24	21	50.00	0.747
Marginal secure	9	21.95	8	19.05	9	21.43
Low secure	8	19.51	10	23.81	10	23.81
Very low secure	1	2.44	5	11.90	2	4.76
Never smoker (%)*	38	92.68	37	88.1	41	97.62	0.242
Morningness-eveningness orientation (%)*
Morning type	3	7.32	7	16.67	2	4.76	0.040
Intermediate	31	75.61	19	45.23	29	69.05
Evening type	7	17.07	16	38.10	11	26.19
Physical activity level, IPAQ (%)
Low	8	19.51	13	30.95	12	28.57	0.283
Medium	10	24.39	7	16.67	14	33.33
High	23	56.10	22	52.38	16	38.10
Measured weight (kg)	61.0	12.8	58.1	10.3	61.5	10.6	0.353
Measured height (m)	165.6	8.7	163.8	9.0	165.9	7.7	0.476
Measured BMI (kg/m^2)	22.0	3.3	21.6	2.8	22.2	2.7	0.597
Total body fat%	25.3	6.1	24.4	7.8	23.2	7.9	0.433

p values were based on Х²-testing for categorical variables and based on two-sample t-test for continuous variables. *Fisher’s exact test was applied.

Figure 1. Study sample flow chart.

Table 2. Changes in meal habits among the intervention groups.

	Both recommendations		Eating breakfast daily		Avoiding late-evening snack		Effect of late-evening snack recommendation			Effect of breakfast recommendation
Variable	Mean change	SE	Mean change	SE	Mean change	SE	Difference	SE	p	Difference	SE	p
Total
Breakfast frequency (times/week)	−0.02	(0.22)	0.06	(0.26)	−0.22	(0.28)	−0.08	(0.37)	0.837	0.21	(0.36)	0.566
Earliest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.30	(0.20)	0.22	(0.22)	0.43	(0.25)	0.08	(0.33)	0.798	−0.13	(0.32)	0.696
Latest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.00	(0.44)	0.06	(0.17)	0.11	(0.37)	−0.06	(0.50)	0.902	−0.11	(0.49)	0.817
Range between earliest and latest hour of breakfast (h)	−0.30	(0.41)	−0.16	(0.29)	−0.31	(0.43)	−0.15	(0.56)	0.792	0.01	(0.54)	0.984
Self-reported fullness of usual breakfast (1–10)	−0.03	(0.21)	0.20	(0.20)	−0.33	(0.25)	−0.23	(0.32)	0.466	0.30	(0.31)	0.341
Night snacking frequency (times/week)	−0.03	(0.38)	−0.36	(0.30)	−0.44	(0.33)	0.33	(0.49)	0.496	0.41	(0.48)	0.388
Earliest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	0.32	(0.23)	0.23	(0.21)	0.32	(0.84)	0.09	(0.77)	0.909	0.00	(0.77)	0.998
Latest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	−0.42	(0.33)	0.32	(0.40)	0.59	(0.61)	−0.74	(0.68)	0.280	−1.01	(0.68)	0.141
Range between earliest and latest hour of late-evening snack (h)	−0.74	(0.42)	0.09	(0.42)	0.27	(0.62)	−0.83	(0.72)	0.255	−1.01	(0.72)	0.167
Women
Breakfast frequency (times/week)	−0.05	(0.31)	−0.21	(0.37)	−0.41	(0.54)	0.17	(0.54)	0.762	0.36	(0.57)	0.528
Earliest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.45	(0.27)	0.50	(0.33)	0.00	(0.35)	−0.05	(0.42)	0.915	0.45	(0.45)	0.312
Latest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.50	(0.61)	0.11	(0.25)	−0.40	(0.50)	0.39	(0.69)	0.575	0.90	(0.73)	0.221
Range between earliest and latest hour of breakfast (h)	0.05	(0.58)	−0.39	(0.47)	−0.40	(0.51)	0.43	(0.74)	0.558	0.45	(0.78)	0.568
Self- reported fullness of usual breakfast (1–10)	0.05	(0.27)	0.17	(0.29)	0.00	(0.26)	−0.12	(0.38)	0.753	0.05	(0.40)	0.911
Night snacking frequency (times/week)	0.32	(0.36)	−0.66	(0.43)	−0.16	(0.62)	0.98	(0.62)	0.123	0.47	(0.65)	0.472
Earliest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	0.50	(0.26)	0.09	(0.31)	0.50	(0.33)	0.41	(0.40)	0.317	0.00	(0.44)	1.000
Latest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	−0.25	(0.51)	0.55	(0.73)	0.13	(0.13)	−0.80	(0.76)	0.307	−0.38	(0.84)	0.657
Range between earliest and latest hour of late-evening snack (h)	−0.75	(0.63)	0.45	(0.74)	−0.38	(0.32)	−1.20	(0.86)	0.172	−0.38	(0.94)	0.693
Men
Breakfast frequency (times/week)	0.05	(0.22)	0.43	(0.33)	−0.08	(0.28)	−0.38	(0.46)	0.406	0.12	(0.42)	0.778
Earliest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.00	(0.27)	−0.14	(0.27)	0.75	(0.35)	0.14	(0.51)	0.781	−0.75	(0.48)	0.122
Latest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	−1.00	(0.36)	0.00	(0.23)	0.50	(0.53)	−1.00	(0.71)	0.167	−1.50	(0.66)	0.029
Range between earliest and latest hour of breakfast (h)	−1.00	(0.36)	0.14	(0.31)	−0.25	(0.66)	−1.14	(0.87)	0.198	−0.75	(0.81)	0.362
Self- reported fullness of usual breakfast (1–10)	−0.18	(0.35)	0.25	(0.26)	−0.58	(0.38)	−0.43	(0.56)	0.446	0.39	(0.52)	0.457
Night snacking frequency (times/week)	−0.73	(0.89)	0.04	(0.41)	−0.68	(0.34)	−0.76	(0.79)	0.339	−0.05	(0.74)	0.944
Earliest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	0.00	(0.44)	0.36	(0.28)	0.21	(1.33)	−0.36	(1.65)	0.827	−0.21	(1.58)	0.893
Latest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	−0.71	(0.18)	0.09	(0.37)	0.86	(0.95)	−0.81	(1.21)	0.512	−1.57	(1.16)	0.186
Range between earliest and latest hour of late-evening snack (h)	−0.71	(0.42)	−0.27	(0.41)	0.64	(0.95)	−0.44	(1.24)	0.724	−1.36	(1.19)	0.262
Low physical activity
Breakfast frequency (times/week)	0.00	(0.26)	−0.44	(0.63)	−0.59	(0.72)	0.44	(1.02)	0.668	0.59	(0.98)	0.554
Earliest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.00	(0.37)	−0.38	(0.32)	0.40	(0.37)	0.38	(0.56)	0.508	−0.40	(0.53)	0.460
Latest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	−0.83	(0.60)	0.50	(0.27)	0.50	(0.50)	−1.33	(0.72)	0.078	−1.33	(0.69)	0.066
Range between earliest and latest hour of breakfast (h)	−0.83	(0.54)	0.88	(0.40)	0.10	(0.64)	−1.71	(0.87)	0.063	−0.93	(0.83)	0.275
Self- reported fullness of usual breakfast (1–10)	−0.42	(0.58)	0.00	(0.33)	−0.55	(0.42)	−0.42	(0.67)	0.541	0.13	(0.64)	0.837
Night snacking frequency (times/week)	−0.83	(1.51)	−0.39	(0.73)	0.36	(0.65)	−0.44	(1.37)	0.748	−1.20	(1.32)	0.373
Earliest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	0.00	(0.32)	−0.20	(0.49)	2.00	(1.45)	0.20	(1.82)	0.914	−2.00	(1.64)	0.243
Latest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	−0.80	(0.20)	0.60	(0.40)	2.63	(1.39)	−1.40	(1.73)	0.430	−3.43	(1.56)	0.044
Range between earliest and latest hour of late-evening snack (h)	−0.80	(0.37)	0.80	(0.37)	0.63	(0.46)	−1.60	(0.68)	0.033	−1.43	(0.62)	0.035
Moderate physical activity
Breakfast frequency (times/week)	0.22	(0.43)	−0.33	(0.84)	−0.40	(0.22)	0.56	(0.70)	0.439	0.62	(0.61)	0.322
Earliest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.00	(0.47)	0.83	(0.31)	0.80	(0.59)	−0.83	(0.80)	0.308	−0.80	(0.70)	0.263
Latest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	−0.89	(0.26)	0.17	(0.54)	−0.20	(0.53)	−1.06	(0.70)	0.148	−0.69	(0.61)	0.274
Range between earliest and latest hour of breakfast (h)	−0.89	(0.54)	−0.67	(0.71)	−1.00	(0.70)	−0.22	(1.01)	0.827	0.11	(0.88)	0.900
Self-reported fullness of usual breakfast (1–10)	−0.28	(0.49)	−0.33	(0.21)	−0.20	(0.35)	0.06	(0.62)	0.929	−0.08	(0.54)	0.886
Night snacking frequency (times/week)	−0.22	(0.62)	0.42	(0.58)	−0.15	(0.35)	−0.64	(0.78)	0.424	−0.07	(0.68)	0.917
Earliest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	0.40	(0.51)	0.33	(0.67)	0.50	(0.38)	0.07	(0.81)	0.935	−0.10	(0.63)	0.876
Latest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	−0.20	(1.16)	0.33	(0.88)	−0.63	(0.38)	−0.53	(1.27)	0.682	0.43	(0.99)	0.675
Range between earliest and latest hour of late-evening snack (h)	−0.60	(1.50)	0.00	(0.58)	−1.13	(0.30)	−0.60	(1.46)	0.688	0.53	(1.14)	0.653
High physical activity
Breakfast frequency (times/week)	−0.14	(0.33)	0.44	(0.22)	0.17	(0.41)	−0.58	(0.44)	0.190	−0.31	(0.46)	0.510
Earliest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.56	(0.26)	0.28	(0.34)	0.20	(0.38)	0.28	(0.45)	0.538	0.36	(0.47)	0.452
Latest hour of breakfast (clock hour)	0.72	(0.74)	−0.17	(0.22)	0.07	(0.74)	0.89	(0.83)	0.289	0.66	(0.87)	0.455
Range between earliest and latest hour of breakfast (h)	0.17	(0.68)	−0.44	(0.41)	−0.13	(0.80)	0.61	(0.87)	0.484	0.30	(0.91)	0.743
Self- reported fullness of usual breakfast (1–10)	0.22	(0.24)	0.47	(0.30)	−0.27	(0.47)	−0.25	(0.46)	0.589	0.49	(0.48)	0.316
Night snacking frequency (times/week)	0.33	(0.40)	−0.61	(0.37)	−1.23	(0.55)	0.94	(0.60)	0.124	1.57	(0.63)	0.017
Earliest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	0.44	(0.38)	0.36	(0.25)	−2.17	(2.18)	0.09	(1.07)	0.936	2.61	(1.32)	0.060
Latest hour of late-evening snack (clock hour)	−0.33	(0.33)	0.21	(0.60)	−0.50	(0.22)	−0.55	(0.73)	0.460	0.17	(0.90)	0.855
Range between earliest and latest hour of late-evening snack (h)	−0.78	(0.40)	−0.14	(0.64)	1.67	(2.09)	−0.63	(1.23)	0.611	−2.44	(1.52)	0.120

Testing was based on generalized mixed-effect models that accounting for within-person correlation of repeated measures.

Table 3. Distribution of body composition and blood pressure parameters at baseline and follow-up by recommendations: pooled, sex-, and physical activity level-stratified analysis.

		Both recommendations					Eating breakfast daily					Avoiding late-evening snack
		Baseline level		Follow-up level			Baseline level		Follow-up level			Baseline level		Follow-up level
Subgroup	Outcome	Mean	SE	Mean	SE	p*	Mean	SE	Mean	SE	p*	Mean	SE	Mean	SE	p*
Total	N =	33					33					36
	BMI (kg/m^2)	21.6	(0.6)	21.6	(0.7)	0.779	21.8	(0.5)	22.0	(0.5)	0.103	22.1	(0.4)	22.2	(0.5)	0.501
	Weight (kg)	58.9	(2.1)	59.2	(2.4)	0.634	59.1	(1.8)	59.8	(1.8)	0.085	61.7	(1.9)	62.3	(2.0)	0.256
	Fat%, total	25.3	(1.2)	24.7	(1.3)	0.139	24.6	(1.4)	24.9	(1.3)	0.403	22.2	(1.3)	22.5	(1.1)	0.502
	Fat%, trunk	24.7	(1.2)	23.7	(1.4)	0.059	24.2	(1.4)	24.5	(1.3)	0.612	21.6	(1.4)	21.7	(1.2)	0.893
	Fat mass (kg)	14.9	(1.0)	14.8	(1.2)	0.731	14.6	(0.9)	14.9	(0.9)	0.253	13.7	(0.9)	14.0	(0.9)	0.381
	Fat free mass (kg)	44.0	(1.8)	44.4	(1.8)	0.114	44.5	(1.5)	44.9	(1.5)	0.186	48.0	(1.6)	48.3	(1.7)	0.207
	SBP (mmHg)	111.8	(2.5)	109.7	(3.0)	0.249	110.0	(2.4)	112.4	(2.4)	0.167	116.3	(2.1)	117.8	(2.3)	0.317
	DBP (mmHg)	66.3	(1.3)	67.1	(1.6)	0.536	64.9	(1.3)	67.8	(1.6)	0.011	67.1	(1.4)	71.1	(1.2)	<.001
	Pulse (bpm)	72.8	(3.1)	72.0	(1.4)	0.800	69.2	(1.8)	73.5	(2.4)	0.050	68.5	(1.7)	71.9	(2.6)	0.043
Women	N =	22					19					16
	BMI (kg/m^2)	20.8	(0.7)	20.7	(0.8)	0.764	21.6	(0.7)	21.8	(0.6)	0.444	21.1	(0.5)	21.1	(0.6)	0.710
	Weight (kg)	53.5	(1.8)	53.5	(2.0)	0.941	54.4	(1.9)	54.7	(1.7)	0.422	54.9	(2.2)	54.9	(2.5)	0.992
	Fat%, total	28.3	(1.2)	27.6	(1.4)	0.078	29.6	(1.3)	29.6	(1.2)	0.966	28.4	(1.1)	28.0	(1.3)	0.447
	Fat%, trunk	27.1	(1.4)	25.9	(1.6)	0.029	28.4	(1.5)	28.2	(1.5)	0.819	26.9	(1.4)	26.2	(1.5)	0.291
	Fat mass (kg)	15.5	(1.3)	15.3	(1.4)	0.417	16.5	(1.3)	16.5	(1.2)	0.929	15.9	(1.3)	15.8	(1.4)	0.794
	Fat free mass (kg)	38.0	(0.7)	38.2	(0.7)	0.214	37.9	(0.8)	38.2	(0.7)	0.253	39.0	(1.0)	39.1	(1.1)	0.617
	SBP (mmHg)	104.8	(2.2)	102.4	(2.3)	0.266	104.0	(2.9)	104.7	(2.1)	0.795	108.7	(2.6)	110.9	(2.9)	0.198
	DBP (mmHg)	64.4	(1.4)	63.8	(1.5)	0.649	62.1	(1.5)	63.7	(1.9)	0.307	64.1	(2.0)	68.8	(2.1)	0.002
	Pulse (bpm)	71.0	(2.6)	72.8	(1.5)	0.518	70.2	(2.5)	73.1	(2.3)	0.352	68.7	(2.2)	75.3	(3.9)	0.020
Men	N =	11					14					20
	BMI (kg/m^2)	23.1	(0.9)	23.3	(1.1)	0.570	22.0	(0.7)	22.4	(0.8)	0.139	22.8	(0.7)	23.2	(0.6)	0.308
	Weight (kg)	69.8	(3.6)	70.7	(4.0)	0.550	65.4	(2.4)	66.6	(2.5)	0.131	67.1	(2.2)	68.2	(2.3)	0.196
	Fat%, total	19.3	(1.3)	18.8	(1.7)	0.673	17.7	(1.2)	18.6	(1.2)	0.224	17.2	(1.3)	18.0	(1.0)	0.171
	Fat%, trunk	20.0	(1.7)	19.3	(2.0)	0.602	18.6	(1.6)	19.5	(1.4)	0.359	17.4	(1.7)	18.1	(1.4)	0.348
	Fat mass (kg)	13.7	(1.5)	13.8	(2.0)	0.887	11.9	(1.1)	12.7	(1.2)	0.152	12.0	(1.2)	12.6	(1.1)	0.237
	Fat free mass (kg)	56.1	(2.5)	56.9	(2.3)	0.289	53.5	(1.4)	53.9	(1.4)	0.441	55.2	(1.3)	55.6	(1.4)	0.255
	SBP (mmHg)	125.8	(3.1)	124.4	(5.4)	0.675	118.0	(3.1)	122.9	(3.1)	0.047	122.4	(2.5)	123.4	(2.8)	0.690
	DBP (mmHg)	70.0	(2.3)	73.7	(2.8)	0.094	68.7	(2.0)	73.3	(2.0)	0.006	69.5	(1.8)	73.0	(1.3)	0.032
	Pulse (bpm)	76.4	(7.8)	70.3	(2.7)	0.496	67.9	(2.6)	74.2	(4.7)	0.052	68.3	(2.5)	69.1	(3.5)	0.667
Low PA	N =	6					9					11
	BMI (kg/m^2)	26.3	(1.9)	26.1	(2.3)	0.747	22.2	(1.4)	22.3	(1.3)	0.623	21.8	(0.9)	22.5	(1.0)	0.077
	Weight (kg)	73.8	(6.2)	73.3	(7.1)	0.791	63.2	(4.3)	63.9	(4.4)	0.510	62.6	(4.0)	64.6	(4.4)	0.085
	Fat%, total	28.6	(4.3)	27.2	(5.3)	0.373	24.6	(2.9)	24.0	(2.7)	0.467	21.0	(3.1)	22.5	(2.8)	0.057
	Fat%, trunk	30.0	(4.1)	28.1	(5.4)	0.322	25.5	(2.8)	24.3	(2.8)	0.110	19.6	(3.4)	21.3	(3.0)	0.091
	Fat mass (kg)	21.4	(3.9)	20.7	(5.0)	0.655	15.8	(2.4)	15.6	(2.3)	0.766	13.5	(2.5)	15.0	(2.5)	0.054
	Fat free mass (kg)	52.5	(5.0)	52.6	(5.0)	0.825	47.5	(3.4)	48.3	(3.4)	0.130	49.1	(3.0)	49.7	(3.1)	0.275
	SBP (mmHg)	126.3	(4.7)	123.7	(7.6)	0.669	111.9	(4.7)	118.2	(4.9)	0.046	118.2	(3.8)	121.9	(4.5)	0.298
	DBP (mmHg)	73.0	(3.2)	74.3	(3.1)	0.697	67.9	(2.4)	69.2	(3.1)	0.454	69.2	(2.8)	74.0	(2.4)	0.042
	Pulse (bpm)	85.1	(12.9)	75.7	(3.9)	0.585	72.6	(4.4)	71.3	(5.0)	0.730	69.3	(3.1)	75.1	(4.4)	0.010
Medium PA	N =	9					6					10
	BMI (kg/m^2)	20.5	(0.7)	21.0	(1.0)	0.328	22.2	(0.9)	22.2	(1.0)	0.889	22.2	(1.0)	21.9	(0.9)	0.527
	Weight (kg)	56.7	(3.2)	58.3	(4.2)	0.295	57.9	(4.5)	58.0	(4.4)	0.737	59.3	(2.8)	59.1	(2.8)	0.843
	Fat%, total	25.4	(1.4)	25.3	(1.7)	0.989	29.0	(1.8)	29.7	(1.9)	0.204	20.8	(1.7)	20.5	(1.6)	0.659
	Fat%, trunk	24.6	(1.5)	24.0	(2.0)	0.613	28.5	(1.9)	29.4	(1.8)	0.304	20.3	(1.6)	19.4	(1.6)	0.307
	Fat mass (kg)	14.2	(0.8)	14.8	(1.4)	0.528	16.8	(1.5)	17.2	(1.6)	0.223	12.3	(1.1)	12.0	(1.0)	0.694
	Fat free mass (kg)	42.5	(3.0)	43.5	(3.4)	0.108	41.1	(3.7)	40.9	(3.6)	0.367	47.1	(2.6)	47.1	(2.6)	0.958
	SBP (mmHg)	113.5	(5.1)	113.1	(6.2)	0.935	104.1	(7.4)	107.6	(3.7)	0.527	117.4	(3.8)	120.3	(3.9)	0.236
	DBP (mmHg)	67.3	(2.8)	69.4	(4.1)	0.566	63.4	(4.7)	64.3	(3.4)	0.516	69.8	(2.9)	72.8	(2.3)	0.188
	Pulse (bpm)	69.2	(3.5)	69.6	(1.9)	0.931	71.1	(4.7)	74.8	(5.0)	0.577	70.2	(3.3)	71.9	(4.6)	0.510
High PA	N =	18					18					15
	BMI (kg/m^2)	20.5	(0.5)	20.4	(0.6)	0.746	21.4	(0.5)	21.8	(0.5)	0.106	22.3	(0.6)	22.3	(0.7)	0.979
	Weight (kg)	55.1	(2.1)	55.0	(2.2)	0.833	57.4	(1.9)	58.3	(1.9)	0.116	62.6	(3.0)	62.8	(3.1)	0.820
	Fat%, total	24.2	(1.4)	23.5	(1.4)	0.165	23.1	(1.9)	23.8	(1.8)	0.295	24.0	(1.8)	23.7	(1.6)	0.723
	Fat%, trunk	23.0	(1.5)	22.0	(1.4)	0.139	22.2	(1.9)	23.0	(1.7)	0.325	23.9	(1.9)	23.5	(1.5)	0.600
	Fat mass (kg)	13.1	(0.8)	12.8	(0.9)	0.381	13.2	(1.1)	13.8	(1.1)	0.183	14.8	(1.1)	14.7	(1.0)	0.781
	Fat free mass (kg)	41.9	(2.1)	42.2	(2.1)	0.510	44.2	(1.9)	44.5	(1.9)	0.423	47.8	(2.7)	48.1	(2.8)	0.310
	SBP (mmHg)	106.1	(2.7)	103.4	(3.0)	0.145	111.0	(2.9)	111.1	(3.3)	0.961	114.2	(3.5)	113.2	(3.3)	0.622
	DBP (mmHg)	63.5	(1.3)	63.5	(1.3)	0.956	63.9	(1.5)	68.2	(2.2)	0.021	63.8	(1.6)	68.0	(1.6)	0.007
	Pulse (bpm)	70.5	(3.2)	71.9	(1.9)	0.582	66.9	(2.0)	74.2	(3.3)	0.013	66.7	(2.6)	69.4	(4.5)	0.415

*p value of paired t-test for the outcome difference between baseline and follow-up.

Table 4. Changes (Δ) of body composition and blood pressure parameters and between-group comparisons.

										Effect of late-evening snack recommendation^a				Effect of breakfast recommendation^b
	Both recommendations			Eating breakfast daily			Avoiding late-evening snack			Difference in difference				Difference in difference
	n	Mean	SE	n	Mean	SE	n	Mean	SE	Mean	SE	p^c (ITT)	p^d (adjusted)	Mean	SE	p^c (ITT)	p^d (adjusted)
Total
Δ BMI (kg/m^2)	33	0.05	(0.19)	33	0.24	(0.14)	36	0.13	(0.19)	−0.18	(0.26)	0.478	0.519	−0.08	(0.25)	0.762	0.852
Δ Weight (kg)		0.28	(0.57)		0.70	(0.40)		0.62	(0.54)	−0.43	(0.73)	0.561	0.587	−0.34	(0.72)	0.633	0.767
Δ Fat%, total		−0.65	(0.43)		0.33	(0.39)		0.28	(0.41)	−0.98	(0.59)	0.101	0.100	−0.93	(0.58)	0.112	0.147
Δ Fat%, trunk		−1.03	(0.53)		0.26	(0.52)		0.07	(0.51)	−1.30	(0.75)	0.085	0.094	−1.10	(0.73)	0.134	0.175
Δ Fat mass (kg)		−0.14	(0.39)		0.35	(0.30)		0.31	(0.35)	−0.48	(0.50)	0.341	0.366	−0.45	(0.49)	0.363	0.475
Δ Fat free mass (kg)		0.42	(0.26)		0.36	(0.26)		0.31	(0.24)	0.06	(0.36)	0.875	0.865	0.10	(0.36)	0.771	0.703
Δ SBP (mmHg)		−2.06	(1.75)		2.42	(1.71)		1.52	(1.50)	−4.48	(2.37)	0.062	0.096	−3.58	(2.32)	0.126	0.245
Δ DBP (mmHg)		0.77	(1.24)		2.87	(1.07)		4.00	(0.99)	−2.10	(1.57)	0.185	0.143	−3.23	(1.54)	0.039	0.043
Δ Pulse (bpm)		−0.85	(3.33)		4.31	(2.11)		3.41	(1.62)	−5.17	(3.48)	0.141	0.115	−4.26	(3.40)	0.214	0.133
Women
Δ BMI (kg/m^2)	22	−0.05	(0.18)	19	0.14	(0.17)	16	−0.09	(0.23)	−0.19	(0.26)	0.470	0.557	0.03	(0.28)	0.905	0.837
Δ Weight (kg)		−0.04	(0.48)		0.35	(0.42)		−0.01	(0.60)	−0.38	(0.68)	0.575	0.719	−0.03	(0.71)	0.967	0.907
Δ Fat%, total		−0.75	(0.40)		−0.02	(0.49)		−0.42	(0.54)	−0.72	(0.64)	0.263	0.191	−0.33	(0.67)	0.629	0.332
Δ Fat%, trunk		−1.22	(0.52)		−0.15	(0.63)		−0.73	(0.67)	−1.07	(0.82)	0.197	0.129	−0.49	(0.86)	0.573	0.286
Δ Fat mass (kg)		−0.28	(0.34)		0.03	(0.35)		−0.11	(0.42)	−0.31	(0.50)	0.538	0.539	−0.16	(0.52)	0.754	0.588
Δ Fat free mass (kg)		0.25	(0.19)		0.32	(0.27)		0.12	(0.23)	−0.07	(0.31)	0.824	0.824	0.13	(0.33)	0.702	0.264
Δ SBP (mmHg)		−2.36	(2.06)		0.65	(2.46)		2.22	(1.65)	−3.01	(2.92)	0.308	0.306	−4.57	(3.06)	0.141	0.167
Δ DBP (mmHg)		−0.69	(1.49)		1.57	(1.49)		4.60	(1.19)	−2.26	(1.97)	0.257	0.296	−5.29	(2.07)	0.013	0.016
Δ Pulse (bpm)		1.74	(2.65)		2.85	(2.98)		6.59	(2.54)	−1.11	(3.77)	0.770	0.889	−4.85	(3.96)	0.225	0.181
Men
Δ BMI (kg/m^2)	11	0.27	(0.46)	14	0.37	(0.24)	20	0.31	(0.29)	−0.10	(0.50)	0.846	0.909	−0.03	(0.47)	0.946	0.653
Δ Weight (kg)		0.90	(1.46)		1.19	(0.74)		1.12	(0.84)	−0.29	(1.52)	0.852	0.997	−0.22	(1.42)	0.877	0.653
Δ Fat%, total		−0.45	(1.03)		0.81	(0.63)		0.84	(0.59)	−1.25	(1.11)	0.267	0.686	−1.29	(1.04)	0.222	0.189
Δ Fat%, trunk		−0.66	(1.23)		0.82	(0.86)		0.71	(0.74)	−1.49	(1.40)	0.296	0.848	−1.37	(1.31)	0.299	0.273
Δ Fat mass (kg)		0.15	(1.00)		0.77	(0.51)		0.65	(0.54)	−0.63	(1.01)	0.540	0.897	−0.51	(0.94)	0.592	0.514
Δ Fat free mass (kg)		0.75	(0.67)		0.41	(0.52)		0.46	(0.40)	0.34	(0.78)	0.666	0.864	0.29	(0.73)	0.694	0.992
Δ SBP (mmHg)		−1.47	(3.41)		4.83	(2.21)		0.97	(2.39)	−6.30	(4.09)	0.131	0.271	−2.44	(3.81)	0.526	0.756
Δ DBP (mmHg)		3.70	(2.00)		4.64	(1.43)		3.52	(1.52)	−0.95	(2.55)	0.713	0.616	0.18	(2.38)	0.940	0.782
Δ Pulse (bpm)		−6.05	(8.55)		6.30	(2.95)		0.86	(1.96)	−12.34	(6.55)	0.066	0.201	−6.90	(6.10)	0.264	0.382
Low PA group
Δ BMI (kg/m^2)	6	−0.22	(0.64)	9	0.14	(0.28)	11	0.68	(0.35)	−0.36	(0.61)	0.561	0.479	−0.90	(0.59)	0.141	0.141
Δ Weight (kg)		−0.53	(1.90)		0.64	(0.94)		2.03	(1.06)	−1.18	(1.89)	0.539	0.623	−2.56	(1.82)	0.172	0.224
Δ Fat%, total		−1.45	(1.48)		−0.54	(0.71)		1.54	(0.71)	−0.91	(1.38)	0.519	0.595	−2.99	(1.33)	0.035	0.087
Δ Fat%, trunk		−1.97	(1.79)		−1.24	(0.69)		1.66	(0.89)	−0.72	(1.62)	0.660	0.700	−3.63	(1.56)	0.029	0.084
Δ Fat mass (kg)		−0.70	(1.47)		−0.20	(0.65)		1.45	(0.67)	−0.50	(1.32)	0.709	0.896	−2.15	(1.27)	0.104	0.241
Δ Fat free mass (kg)		0.15	(0.64)		0.84	(0.50)		0.58	(0.50)	−0.69	(0.84)	0.417	0.366	−0.43	(0.81)	0.598	0.372
Δ SBP (mmHg)		−2.58	(5.69)		6.33	(2.69)		3.74	(3.41)	−8.92	(5.78)	0.137	0.372	−6.33	(5.57)	0.268	0.488
Δ DBP (mmHg)		1.33	(3.23)		1.33	(1.70)		4.79	(2.06)	0.00	(3.45)	1.000	0.626	−3.45	(3.32)	0.309	0.547
Δ Pulse (bpm)		−9.47	(16.26)		−1.31	(3.68)		5.83	(1.84)	−8.16	(10.58)	0.449	0.215	−15.31	(10.19)	0.147	0.100
Medium PA group
Δ BMI (kg/m^2)	9	0.47	(0.45)	6	−0.02	(0.11)	10	−0.27	(0.41)	0.48	(0.62)	0.440	0.492	0.74	(0.54)	0.183	0.196
Δ Weight (kg)		1.58	(1.41)		0.12	(0.33)		−0.23	(1.13)	1.46	(1.81)	0.429	0.618	1.81	(1.58)	0.265	0.245
Δ Fat%, total		−0.01	(0.81)		0.72	(0.49)		−0.33	(0.72)	−0.73	(1.14)	0.528	0.594	0.32	(0.99)	0.750	0.695
Δ Fat%, trunk		−0.51	(0.97)		0.85	(0.74)		−0.93	(0.86)	−1.36	(1.38)	0.335	0.386	0.42	(1.20)	0.731	0.758
Δ Fat mass (kg)		0.58	(0.88)		0.42	(0.30)		−0.26	(0.64)	0.16	(1.09)	0.884	0.914	0.84	(0.95)	0.389	0.353
Δ Fat free mass (kg)		1.00	(0.55)		−0.28	(0.29)		0.03	(0.55)	1.28	(0.81)	0.126	0.329	0.97	(0.70)	0.182	0.177
Δ SBP (mmHg)		−0.35	(4.17)		3.50	(5.16)		2.93	(2.31)	−3.85	(5.65)	0.503	0.410	−3.29	(4.93)	0.512	0.615
Δ DBP (mmHg)		2.07	(3.46)		0.92	(1.31)		2.95	(2.07)	1.16	(4.05)	0.778	0.258	−0.88	(3.53)	0.807	0.472
Δ Pulse (bpm)		0.39	(4.33)		3.67	(6.15)		1.72	(2.50)	−3.28	(6.20)	0.602	0.665	−1.33	(5.41)	0.808	0.762
High PA group
Δ BMI (kg/m^2)	18	−0.06	(0.19)	18	0.37	(0.21)	15	−0.01	(0.25)	−0.43	(0.29)	0.153	0.202	−0.05	(0.31)	0.861	0.935
Δ Weight (kg)		−0.11	(0.49)		0.93	(0.56)		0.15	(0.66)	−1.03	(0.78)	0.191	0.254	−0.26	(0.82)	0.753	0.840
Δ Fat%, total		−0.69	(0.48)		0.64	(0.59)		−0.23	(0.64)	−1.33	(0.78)	0.095	0.161	−0.46	(0.82)	0.577	0.696
Δ Fat%, trunk		−0.98	(0.63)		0.82	(0.81)		−0.43	(0.81)	−1.81	(1.03)	0.087	0.203	−0.55	(1.08)	0.614	0.839
Δ Fat mass (kg)		−0.31	(0.34)		0.59	(0.43)		−0.14	(0.49)	−0.90	(0.57)	0.124	0.219	−0.17	(0.60)	0.785	0.918
Δ Fat free mass (kg)		0.21	(0.31)		0.33	(0.40)		0.30	(0.28)	−0.12	(0.47)	0.806	0.744	−0.09	(0.49)	0.858	0.848
Δ SBP (mmHg)		−2.74	(1.80)		0.11	(2.25)		−1.04	(2.07)	−2.85	(2.82)	0.317	0.329	−1.70	(2.96)	0.569	0.624
Δ DBP (mmHg)		−0.06	(1.15)		4.30	(1.69)		4.12	(1.30)	−4.36	(1.95)	0.030	0.020	−4.19	(2.04)	0.046	0.037
Δ Pulse (bpm)		1.40	(2.49)		7.34	(2.66)		2.76	(3.28)	−5.94	(3.83)	0.127	0.356	−1.36	(4.01)	0.737	0.843

^aEffect of avoiding night snack was the comparison between both recommendation group and breakfast recommendation group.

^bEffect of daily breakfast was the comparison between both recommendation group and night snack recommendation group.

^cITT is intent-to-treat testing of the between group comparison.

^dAdjusted testing is adjusted for age, sex (if appropriate), baseline chronotype, baseline physical activity level (IPAQ) (if appropriate), and duration between baseline and follow-up.