The Discursive Emergence of Gendered Physiological Discrimination in Sex Verification Testing

Abstract

Athletic female bodies challenge ideals of femininity, a tendency exacerbated by factors relating to gender expression, race, and nationality. In this article, the authors trace the discourse of sex verification testing in elite athletics. The study finds that most of the athletes historically suspected of not being “truly” female over the course of the tests somehow differed from White, Western assumptions about femininity. By highlighting discontinuities in the testing over the years, the authors illuminate the constructed and raced nature of sex verification tests and mark the emergence of a specific type of bodily discipline. Offering the concept of “gendered physiological discrimination” to explain how the testing enables discrimination based on internal bodily processes, the authors explore why physiological markers such as hormones and chromosomes need not be considered markers of biological sex. Although physiological discrimination intersects with sexism, patriarchy, racism, and imperialism, it is a new field of power that primarily discriminates against “non-normative” bodily processes.

Keywords:

• athletes
• discourse tracing
• gender verification testing
• gendered physiological discrimination
• intersex
• sports

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the following individuals for insights in developing this article: Karen Ashcraft, Lisa Flores, Joan Faber McAlister, Graham Slater, and the two anonymous reviewers.

Notes

The slippage between sex and gender often implies an essentialization of feminine gender expression with female sex organs and a normative “female” phenotype. Although most sources we cite use the term “gender verification,” we prefer to protest the equation of sex and gender by using “sex verification” instead. Accordingly, when applicable, we change the use of “gender” in quotations to “[sex].”.

We use the term “elite sports” to refer collectively to national and international athletic organizations and events.

A surge of popularity in eugenics occurred during this time, which likely set a context for much of the anxiety about sex and gender in sports and certainly for the idea that one might test individuals for the ideal type of athlete.

Countries comprising the Eastern European Bloc had notable Jewish populations and were politically opposite from Brundage's support for Nazi Germany during this time.

People with mosaicism have different levels of sensitivity to androgens, which aids in building muscle and can enhance performance. They may not be able to use testosterone and thus might be disadvantaged in sports performance. Overall, most medical professionals acknowledge that sex-related genetic differences confer no unfair physical advantages for competition (Farhi, 2008; Tucker & Collins, 2009).