A Scoping Review of Forced Separation Between People and Their Companion Animals

Figures & data

Figure 1. PRISMA diagram showing the flow of the information through the phases of the review.

Table 1. Description of the 42 articles by separation event: Domestic violence (1–18), Health (19–20), Homelessness (21–28), Housing (29), Natural disaster (30–42).

Reference no.	Author (year)	Title	Focus of research	Methods	Recruitment/target population
Domestic violence articles
1	Allen et al. (2006)	Domestic violence and the abuse of pets: Researching the link and its implications in Ireland	The link between animal abuse and domestic violence	Qualitative methods Questionnaire completed in written form – staff supported completion if required, analysis not stated	Women’s emergency shelters in Ireland. n = 23
2	Ascione (1998)	Battered women's reports of their partners’ and their children's cruelty to animals	The prevalence of animal abuse and domestic violence	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Battered Partner Shelter Survey Descriptive strategy	Women's emergency shelters in the US. Staff administered
3	Ascione et al. (2007)	Battered pets and domestic violence	Domestic violence and animal abuse and children wellbeing	Quantitative methods Comparative study Surveys • Conflict Tactic Scales • Battered Partner Shelter Survey • Families and Pets Survey Descriptive statistics, cross-tabulations, and parametric and nonparametric analyses, logistic regressions	Convenience sampling, non-shelter group from community, shelter group from emergency shelters in US. n = 221
4	Barrett et al. (2020)	Animal maltreatment as risk marker of more frequent and severe forms of intimate partner violence	The relationship between animal abuse, types of domestic violence, and abuse severity.	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Partner Treatment of Animal Scale • Revised Conflict Tactic Scale Checklist of Controlling Behaviour ANOVA tests	Women’s emergency transitional shelters in Canada. Staff administered surveys. Purposive sampling. n = 86
5	Barrett et al. (2018)	Help-seeking among abused women with pets: Evidence from a Canadian sample	The role of animal abuse and women’s help seeking or deterrence of help seeking (Main focus on role of animal abuse)	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Partner Treatment of Animals’ Scale • Revised Conflict Tactic Scale • Additional Likert Scale ANOVA tests	Women’s emergency transitional shelters in Canada. Staff administered surveys. Purposive sampling. n = 86
6	Carlisle-Frank et al. (2004)	Selective battering of the family pet	Beliefs, perceptions, behaviors of abusers; companion animals as property, a scapegoat, stress/environment	Quantitative methods Comparative study (pet abusers and non-pet abusers), • Sentient Being Scale • Hassle Stressors Scale • Unrealistic Expectations Scale Chi-square, two-tailed unpaired t-tests, regression model	Women’s domestic violence shelters in the US. Written questionnaires provided by staff in US. n = 34
7	Collins et al. (2018)	A template analysis of intimate partner violence survivors’ experiences of animal maltreatment: Implications for safety planning and intervention	The relationship of animal abuse in women and children and barriers to leave	Qualitative methods (Part of a mixed-method study) • Pet Treatment Survey Semi-structured survey completed in written form (No verbal or audio interviews recorded), template analysis	Convenience sampling. Women’s domestic violence agencies across western US. Survey completed by staff writing answers verbatim, or participants completed themselves. Response rate estimated 35.4%. n = 103
8	Faver and Strand (2003)	To leave or to stay? Battered women’s concern for vulnerable pets	The role of animal abuse and difference in geographical location	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Domestic Violence Pet Abuse Survey Descriptive statistics, logistic regression analyses	Two rural and four urban women’s domestic violence shelters in the US. Estimated response rate 5.7%. n = 41
9	Fitzgerald et al. (2019)	Animal maltreatment in the context of intimate partner violence: A manifestation of power and control?	The connection of animal abuse and domestic violence	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Partner's Treatment of Animals Scale • Revised Conflict Tactic Scale Correlation matrix	Women’s emergency shelters in Canada. n = 86
10	Flynn (2000)	Woman’s best friend: Pet abuse and the role of companion animals in the lives of battered women	The role of pets in domestic violence (relationship)	Quantitative methods Likert scale	Women’s emergency shelters in Canada. Staff administered. n = 111
11	Hardesty et al. (2013)	Coercive control and abused women's decisions about their pets when seeking shelter	Connection of animal abuse, domestic violence, and decision making	Qualitative methods Face-to-face interviews, grounded theory	Women’s domestic violence shelter in the US. Staff identified participants. Researchers completed interview. n = 19
12	Hartman et al. (2018)	Intimate partner violence and animal abuse in an immigrant-rich sample of mother–child dyads recruited from domestic violence programs	Connection of animal abuse and domestic violence	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Revised Conflict Tactic Scale • Pet Treatment Survey • Cruelty to Animals Inventory Logistics regression analysis	Women’s domestic violence shelters in the US. Staff selected participants and administered surveys. n = 291
13	Simmons and Lehmann (2007)	Exploring the link between pet abuse and controlling behaviors in violent relationships	Connection of animal abuse and domestic violence	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Likert Scale • Checklist of Controlling Behaviors Descriptive analysis, chi-square, two-tailed t-test	Women’s urban domestic violence shelter in US. n = 1,283
14	Strand and Faver (2005)	Battered women's concern for their pets: A closer look	Connection of animal abuse and domestic violence (decision making)	Mixed methods Quantitative survey for participants, • Pet Abuse Survey Qualitative interview with domestic violence worker in rural shelter, frequency distributions, descriptive statistics, contingency tables, chi-square analyses, phi-coefficient	Two (rural & urban) women’s domestic violence shelters in US. Response rate 38% urban, 58% rural. n = 51
15	Taylor et al. (2018)	People of diverse genders and/or sexualities caring for and protecting animals’ companions in the context of domestic violence	The role of companion animals in domestic violence through the lens of diverse genders	Qualitative methods (Part of a mixed-method study) Online survey, three open-ended questions from a 42-item questionnaire focusing on experience for qualitative approach, thematic analysis (Scales below are from larger quantitative study) • Pet Attitude Scale • Liking People Scale • Kessler Psychological Distress Scale • Multi-dimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support	Recruitment through social media and e-mails to organizations in Australia and UK. Estimated response rate 27.24%. n = 137
16	Tiplady et al. (2012)	Intimate partner violence and companion animal welfare	Effect of domestic violence on the companion animal	Quantitative methods Survey questionnaire, telephone interviews	Recruitment through the Australian public with advertising posters, radio, animal welfare, IPV victim support websites, newspaper articles. n = 26
17	Tiplady et al. (2018)	The animals are all I have: Domestic violence, companion animals, and veterinarians	Issues of domestic violence, animal abuse, and vet care	Qualitative methods Semi-structured interviews	Recruitment through domestic violence crisis line or stayed at a women’s domestic violence shelter in Queensland, Australia. Participants selected by staff at refuge and directed to researcher. n = 13
18	Volant et al. (2008)	The relationship between domestic violence and animal abuse	Domestic violence, animal abuse rural/urban (Victoria, Australia)	Quantitative methods Comparative study (administered via telephone), quantitative questionnaire, chi-square, t-test	Recruitment through women’s domestic violence shelters in Victoria, Australia, and non-domestic violence group from neighborhood community houses. n = 204
Health articles
19	Applebaum et al. (2020)	How pets’ factor into healthcare decisions for COVID-19: A One Health perspective	Decision making in the context of health care (COVID-19) and pets	Mixed methods Online questionnaire survey, • Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support, Convergent comparison design, multinomial logistic regression models, grounded theory	Non-probability sampling, recruitment through social media interest groups. Adult pet owners in the US. n = 2,772
20	Canady and Sansone (2019)	Health care decisions and delay of treatment in companion animal owners	Decision making in the context of accessing health care and pets	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Interpersonal Support Evaluation List • Monash Dog Ownership Relationship Scale Comparison groups, linear regression analysis	US community sample recruited via Amazon Mechanical Turk companion animal owners. n = 148 (questionnaire) n = 263 (comparison groups)
Homelessness articles
21	Cleary et al. (2021)	The unbreakable bond: The mental health benefits and challenges of pet ownership for people experiencing homelessness	To explore the experiences of pet owners who are or were homeless	Qualitative methods Face-to-face interviews, narrative thematic analysis	Recruitment through homeless services in Sydney, Australia. n = 2
22	Cronley et al. (2009)	Homeless people who are animal caretakers: A comparative study	Differences in characteristics between homeless with animals and homeless without animals declining housing out of concern for their animals	Quantitative methods Nonprobability purposive sampling, cross-tabulations, bivariate correlations	Data collected from client's self-reports collected from the Homeless Management Information System in the US. Homeless people who report caring for animals with homeless people who do not report caring for animals. n = 4,100
23	Kidd and Kidd (1994)	Benefits and liabilities of pets for the homeless	To examine the attachment and correlation of people owning pets in childhood and level of attachment in adult hood	Qualitative methods Face-to-face interviews	Recruitment from soup kitchens and outreach centers in the US. Homeless adults. n = 105
24	Labrecque and Walsh (2011)	Homeless women's voices on incorporating companion animals into shelter services	To examine the nature of animal caretaking among female, homeless shelter residents	Qualitative methods Face-to-face interviews, phenomenological/content analysis	Homeless shelters in Canada. n = 51
25	Scanlon et al. (2021)	Homeless people and their dogs: Exploring the nature and impact of the human companion animal bond	To explore the nature of the human–companion animal bond between UK homeless owners and their dogs	Qualitative methods Semi-structured interviews, thematic analysis	Homeless or risk of homeless participants recruited through a UK housing service. n = 20
26	Singer et al. (1995)	Dilemmas associated with rehousing homeless people who have companion animals	To assess the nature and consequences of human/animal relationships amongst the homeless	Quantitative surveys • Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale. • Beck Hopelessness Scale Statistical analysis: t-test	Homeless people seeking a veterinary clinic for homeless pet owners in the US. n = 66
27	Slatter et al. (2012)	Homelessness and companion animals: More than just a pet?	To explore the extent to which homelessness impacts on the ability to have animal companions	Qualitative methods Semi-structured interviews, descriptive analysis	Clients of a homeless health Outreach Team in Australia. n = 26
28	Wusinich et al. (2019)	“If you're gonna help me, help me”: Barriers to housing among unsheltered homeless adults	To examine barriers accessing housing, services, and experiences surviving on the street	Qualitative methods Interviews, critical realist framework, thematic analysis	Stratified random sampling, recruitment through unsheltered homeless participants in the US. n = 43
Housing Articles
29	Shore et al. (2003)	Moving as a reason for pet relinquishment: A closer look	The relationship between bonding and relinquishment for moving	Qualitative methods Open-ended questionnaires – telephone surveys, • Human–Animal Bond Scale (exact scale not stated)	Recruitment through a human society (charity organization) in the US. Response rate 68.4%. n = 57
Natural disaster articles
30	Brackenridge et al. (2012)	Dimensions of the human–animal bond and evacuation decisions among pet owners during Hurricane Ike	To examine pet owner evacuation in a post-Katrina PETS Act environment	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale • Miller-Rada Commitment to Pets Scale Bi-variate descriptive statistics, logistic regressions	A self-survey mailed to postcodes of pet-owning residents in Harris County in the US that had been under a mandatory evacuation order. n = 120
31	Coombs et al. (2015)	Did dog ownership influence perceptions of adult health and wellbeing during and following the Canterbury earthquakes? A qualitative study	Health perceptions of healthy adults during and post-earthquake	Qualitative methods Interviews, thematic analysis	Purposive sampling, recruitment through word of mouth from the Christchurch city and townships. Participants were women who owned a dog at the time of the earthquake in New Zealand. n = 7
32	Farmer and DeYoung (2019)	The pets of Hurricane Matthew: Evacuation and sheltering with companion animals	Companion animals and evacuation decision making with a focus on pets of Hurricane Mathew	Mixed methods Open-ended questionnaire, stated-choice surveys, thematic analysis, chi-square analysis	Convenience sampling, recruitment through social media of owners who lived in areas affected by Hurricane Matthew in the US. n = 214
33	Heath et al. (2001)	Risk factors for pet evacuation failure after a slow-onset disaster	Risk factors for pet evacuation failure during a flood	Quantitative methods Evacuation-based questionnaire	Random telephone survey for pet-owning persons under evacuation notice. n = 203
34	Hunt et al. (2008)	Psychological sequelae of pet loss following Hurricane Katrina	To assess the psychological effects of pet loss post Hurricane Katrina	Quantitative methods Self-report online surveys, • Beck Depression Inventory • PTSD Symptom Scale Self-Report • Peri-Traumatic Dissociative Experiences Questionnaire • Stanford Acute Stress Reaction Questionnaire • Pet Attachment Questionnaire • Pet Bereavement Questionnaire MANOVA, ANOVA, Cohen’s d analysis	Recruitment through relevant social media websites in the US. n = 65
35	Lowe et al. (2009)	The impact of pet loss on the perceived social support and psychological distress of hurricane survivors	Perceived social support and elevated psychological distress post disaster	Quantitative methods Likert scales, • Social Provisions Scale • Kessler-6 Scale Conservation of resources analysis	Recruitment from a New Orleans educational interventions in the US. A sample of low-income, African American single mothers post Hurricane Katrina with pet loss. n = 365
36	Taylor et al. (2015)	The preparedness and evacuation behavior of pet owners in emergencies and natural disasters	Pet owner emergency preparedness or anticipated evacuation behaviors in the context of an experienced disaster or emergency	Quantitative methods Online survey (based on evacuation), simple descriptive statistics, frequencies, cross-tabulations	Recruitment through social media. Australian pet owners who experienced a range of natural disasters or emergencies. n = 352
37	Thompson et al. (2012)	Pet ownership and the spatial and temporal dimensions of evacuation decisions	Evacuation decision-making to include or not include pets during Hurricane Gustav	Quantitative methods Surveys (focused on evacuation)	Recruitment through convenience sampling, rest stops along major evacuation routes (Gas stations, convenience stores, hotel). Response rate 65%. n = 119
38	Thompsons et al. (2017)	Animal ownership among vulnerable populations in regional South Australia: Implications for natural disaster preparedness and resilience	Preparedness/survival planning and animals for a bushfire emergency	Quantitative methods Surveys (based on preparedness, perceived risks/responses), univariate descriptive statistics, chi-square, independent t-tests analysis	Recruitment online from affected areas in South Australia and firefighting agency with animal owners threatened by bushfire in January 2014. n = 606
39	Trigg et al. (2016)	A moveable beast: Subjective influence of human-animal relationships on risk perception, and risk behavior during bushfire threat	Examination of the human–animal connections and risk perception and behavior in companion animals at times of bushfire	Qualitative methods Semi-structured interviews, critical incident framework, thematic analysis	Recruitment through social media and community notices (e.g., veterinary clinics). South Australian residents in bushfire-affected area. n = 25
40	Trigg et al. (2019)	Archetyping relationships with companion animals to understand disaster risk-taking propensity	To test an archetypal profiling approach to understanding animal-related, disaster risk-taking, motives of pet–owners	Quantitative methods Surveys, • Pet Attachment Questionnaire • Possession Attachment Scale • Incorporation into the Extended Self Scale • Emotional Significance Scale • Anthropomorphism Scale • Companion Animal Self Object Questionnaire • Mini-International Personality Item Pool Scales • Environmental Attitude Orientation Scale • Risk Propensity Scale • Pet-Owner Risk Propensity Scale • A “Moral Dilemma” Vignette • A Social-Desirability Bias Scale Exploratory two-step cluster analysis	Recruitment of Australian pet owners through social media online websites and Qualtrics, Provo, UT. Response rate 33%. n = 437
41	Yamazaki (2015)	A survey of companion animal owners affected by the East Japan Great Earthquake in Iwate and Fukushima Prefectures, Japan	To explore preparedness, evacuation, and required social support	Quantitative methods Self-administered surveys, • Questionnaire Regarding Disasters and Pets • Pet Attachment Scale • Disaster Preparedness Scale • Utilization of Support Scale • Need for Support Scale Chi-square, Pearson’s product moment correlation, Spearman’s rank correlation, t-tests	Recruitment handed out in person at veterinary hospitals in Japan and/or telephone or posted. Pet owners affected by the disasters of Fukushima and earthquake. Response rate 70.5%. n = 289
42	Zottarelli (2010)	Broken bond: An exploration of human factors associated with companion animal loss during Hurricane Katrina	To explore pre-existing characteristics of disaster vulnerability of people who experienced pet loss, and evacuation behaviors and pet loss/trauma	Quantitative methods Telephone interviews, bi-variate descriptive statistics, multivariate analyses	Random sampling of Hurricane Katrina survivors, recruitment through Gallup organization from a US database who sought assistance from the American Red Cross and affiliated organizations post Hurricane Katrina. Response rate 90%. n = 1,510

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