Size or Content of the Pie? Source of Income and Perceived Income Adequacy of Older Europeans

Figures & data

Table 1. Perceived income adequacy, % & n (weighted).

	%	n
With great difficulty	7.3	9.828
With difficulty	15.1	15.974
With some difficulty	31.2	24.779
Fairly easily	26.5	18.819
Easily	14.2	11.482
Very easily	5.7	4.952
All	100	85.834

Table 2. Sample statistics on independent variables (weighted), % & n.

	%	n
Gender
Men	43.0	37.758
Women	57.0	48.076
All	100	85.834
Age
65‒69	28.9	26.025
70‒74	24.3	21.909
75+	46.9	37.874
All	100	85.808
Household type
One person	48.8	37.200
Two adults	41.3	39.999
Other	10.0	8.635
All	100	85.834
Perceived health
Good/ very good	41.4	31.896
Fair	40.5	34.678
Bad/ very bad	18.1	18.055
All	100	84.629
Tenure status
Owner	80.0	71.262
Renting	15.5	9.412
Rent-free accommodation	4.5	5.157
All	100	85.831

Table 3. The associations between income sources and perceived income adequacy among older people (65+) in Europe, linear regression analysis with country-fixed effects.

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
Women (ref. Men)	−0.14***	−0.14***	−0.13***	−0.13***	−0.13***	−0.13***
70–74 (ref. 65 − 69)	0.03***	0.02*	0.02*	0.02*	0.03***	0.01
75+	0.12***	0.10***	0.10***	0.10***	0.11***	0.09***
2 adults (ref. 1 adult)	0.03***	0.03***	0.03***	0.04***	0.04***	0.05***
Other households	−0.16***	−0.12***	−0.13***	−0.11***	−0.15***	−0.06***
Fair health (ref. Good)	−0.26***	−0.26***	−0.25***	−0.26***	−0.25***	−0.25***
Poor health	−0.59***	−0.59***	−0.57***	−0.59***	−0.58***	−0.56***
Renting (ref. Owner)	−0.38***	−0.38***	−0.35***	−0.38***	−0.36***	−0.32***
Rent-free accommodation	−0.07***	−0.06***	−0.05***	−0.07***	−0.06***	−0.04**
Hh. Income (log.)	0.67***	0.68***	0.65***	0.69***	0.65***	0.65***
Pensions		0.13***
Other benefits			−0.75***			−0.74***
Work income				−0.17***		−0.17***
Capital income					0.82***	0.77***
Constant	4.23***	4.12***	4.24***	4.24***	4.19***	4.20***
Observations	84,586	84,586	84,586	84,586	84,586	84,586
R^2	0.49	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50
Adjusted R^2	0.49	0.49	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50
Country dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes

Perceived income adequacy: Ability to make ends meet: 1 = With great difficulty to 6 = Very easily.

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Figure 1. The average marginal effects of income sources on perceived income adequacy by household income level & 95% CIs.

Table 4. Income shares (mean of 0 − 1) by household income quintiles (weighted).

	1 (Lowest)	2	3	4	5 (Highest)	All
Pensions	0.86	0.87	0.84	0.82	0.71	0.82
Other benefits	0.05	0.04	0.04	0.03	0.02	0.04
Work income	0.07	0.07	0.08	0.10	0.16	0.09
Capital income	0.02	0.02	0.03	0.06	0.11	0.05

Table

	Other benefits	Work income	Capital income	R2
Austria	−2.09***	−0.00	1.18***	0.20
Belgium	−1.14***	−0.11	0.80**	0.27
Bulgaria	−0.43***	−0.36***	−0.58**	0.28
Switzerland	−0.59	−0.31*	0.64***	0.18
Cyprus	−1.46***	−0.78***	0.20	0.53
Czech Republic	−1.33***	−0.43***	0.95**	0.20
Denmark	−0.38	−0.15	0.22	0.09
Estonia	−0.71**	−0.83***	0.56	0.23
Greece	−0.63***	−0.20***	0.47***	0.17
Spain	−0.95***	−0.19*	1.04***	0.20
Finland	−0.91**	−0.62***	0.20	0.15
France	−0.35*	−0.27*	0.16	0.29
Croatia	−0.24*	−0.13	0.48*	0.36
Hungary	−1.22***	−0.16	0.02	0.24
Ireland	−0.70**	−0.22	1.20***	0.16
Italy	−1.07***	0.02	0.90***	0.18
Lithuania	−0.68**	−0.20	0.97*	0.23
Luxemburg	−1.50***	−0.16	1.11**	0.23
Lithuania	−1.03***	−0.13	−0.09	0.27
Malta	−1.36***	−0.37*	0.89***	0.15
Netherlands	−1.67***	−0.05	0.35	0.21
Norway	−0.69***	−0.18	0.21	0.17
Poland	−0.89***	−0.22**	0.47	0.31
Portugal	−0.40**	−0.31***	0.79***	0.32
Romania	−0.46**	0.15	4.86*	0.32
Sweden	−1.48***	−0.39*	0.18	0.21
Slovenia	−0.31*	−0.63***	−0.47	0.29
Slovakia	−0.57*	−0.34**	8.64***	0.20
United Kingdom	−0.73***	−0.31***	0.80***	0.21

* The analysis includes same controls as model 6 in Table 3.

Table

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)
	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet
Pensions	0.20***
Pensions * Hh. income	0.37***
Other benefits		−1.05***			−1.08***
Other benefits * Hh. income		−0.47***			−0.59***
Work income			−0.16***		−0.24***
Work income * Hh. income			−0.088***		−0.18***
Capital income				0.76***	0.67***
Capital income * Hh. income				−0.58***	−0.65***
Constant	4.03***	4.23***	4.24***	4.16***	4.16***
Observations	84,586	84,586	84,586	84,586	84,586
R^2	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.51
Adjusted R^2	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.50	0.51

Perceived income adequacy: Ability to make ends meet: 1 = With great difficulty to 6 = Very easily.

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

Table

	(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)
	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet	Ability to make ends meet
Women (ref. Men)	0.78***	0.79***	0.79***	0.78***	0.78***	0.80***
70–74 (ref. 65-69)	1.08***	1.05**	1.05**	1.05**	1.07***	1.02
75+	1.26***	1.22***	1.23***	1.22***	1.25***	1.19***
2 adults ref. (1 adult)	1.04*	1.05***	1.05**	1.05***	1.05***	1.08***
Other households	0.72***	0.83***	0.77***	0.82***	0.74***	0.91***
Mediocre health ref. (Good)	0.62***	0.62***	0.63***	0.62***	0.62***	0.63***
Poor health	0.33***	0.33***	0.34***	0.33***	0.33***	0.34***
Renting ref. (Owner)	0.49***	0.50***	0.53***	0.49***	0.51***	0.55***
Free accommodation	0.89***	0.89***	0.92**	0.89***	0.89***	0.92**
Hh. income (log)	4.11***	4.35***	3.98***	4.31***	3.89***	3.98***
Pensions		1.49***
Other benefits			0.20***			0.19***
Work income				0.67***		0.67***
Capital income					4.16***	3.66***
Observations	84,586	84,586	84,586	84,586	84,586	84,586
Country dummies	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes

Exponentiated coefficients.

Perceived income adequacy: Ability to make ends meet: 1 = With great difficulty to 6 = Very easily.

* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.