Neuropsychological mechanisms of social difficulties in disruptive mood dysregulation disorder versus oppositional defiant disorder

Figures & data

Figure 1. Selection process.

Table 1. Participant characteristics.

Characteristic	DMDD (N = 53)	ODD (N = 39)	Test statistic
Age M(SD)	9.33 (1.91)	9.61 (1.81)	t(90) = –.72
Sex: Girl N(%)	12 (23)	14 (36)	χ^2(1) = 1.95
FSIQ M(SD)^1	99.95 (13.09) N = 37	95.24 (12.76) N = 29	t(64) = 1.15
Comorbidity N(%)
ADHD	31(58)	15(38)
Depression	8(15)	4(10)
Anxiety	14(26)	12(31)
PTSD	3(6)	0(0)
Conduct disorder	5(9)	1(3)
Autism spectrum disorder	2(4)	1(3)
Tics/Tourette’s syndrome	3(6)	3(8)
Family income N(%)			χ^2(1) = 6.11*
>/700 000–300 000 NOK	37 (84)	35 (100)
<300 000 NOK^2	7 (16)	0 (0)
Number of close friends, N			χ^2(2) = .88
None	2	1
One	5	5
Two or more	38	31
Times/weekly with friends, N			χ^2(1) = .01
<1	11	9
≥1	33	28

Note. FSIQ = Full Scale IQ. ADHD = Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Depression = Severe Depressive Disorder, Dysthymia, Depressive Disorder Not Otherwise Specified, Cyclothymia. Anxiety = Separation Anxiety Disorder, Specific Phobia, Social Anxiety Disorder, General Anxiety Disorder, Anxiety Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. PTSD = Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Conduct disorder = Conduct Disorder or Conduct Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. NOK = Norwegian Krone.

¹Levene’s test show that the variances for FSIQ in DMDD vs. ODD are not equal, F(1,50) = 4.40, p = .04.

²Below Norwegian poverty level. *p < .05

Table 2. Test statistics of the measures across DMDD and ODD.

	DMDD	ODD
Outcome measure	M (SD)	M (SD)	Test statistic
CBCL Social Problems Raw Score	5.79 (3.93)	5.86 (3.21)	t(82) = –.10
CBCL Social Problems T Score	62.5 (9.12)	62.1 (7.04)	t(81) = .26
NEPSY2 Face-Emotion Recognition (Raw)^1	25.8 (5.41)	25.2 (3.83)	F(1,74) = 1.17
NEPSY2 Theory of Mind (Raw)^1	21.1 (4.17)	19.9 (4.26)	F(1,73) = 3.60
NEPSY2 Design Fluency (Raw)^1	19.5 (7.49)	18.7 (7.61)	F(1,74) = 1.09
NEPSY2 Inhibition (Scaled)	8.39 (3.64)	8.53 (3.42)	t(65) = –.18
NEPSY2 Word List Interference (Scaled)	9.85 (3.71)	8.43 (3.86)	t(57) = 1.53

Note. Raw (non-imputed) data. No statistically significant differences.

¹Covariate: Age.

Figure 2. Social cognition score distributions.

Note. Based on raw data. Percentile ranks < 26% are indicative of clinical scores (i.e., below expected/norm levels). Scaled scores have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3. Scaled scores < 8 are indicative of clinical scores.

Figure 3. Executive functions scaled score distributions.

Note. Based on raw data. Scaled scores have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3. Scaled scores < 8 are indicative of clinical scores.

Table 3. Correlations between variables in DMDD and ODD.

Notes. Correlations based on raw data are shaded in light color, whereas the correlations based on imputed data are not. ***p < .001 (2-tailed) **p < .0.01 (2-tailed). *p < .0.05 (2-tailed).

Figure 4. Regression model in children with DMDD with coefficients.

Note. Squared boxes = Raw values. Rounded boxes = Computed scores. Dependent Variable: CBCL Social Problems. Social Cognition = Combined NEPSY-2 Theory of Mind and Face-emotion Recognition score. Executive Function = Combined NEPSY-2 Shift, Inhibition and Working Memory score. Circular arrows = Social Cognition*Executive Function interaction variable. Results from raw data are in parentheses. *p < .05.

Figure 5. Interaction effect of executive function and social cognition on social problems in children with ODD.

Note. Using raw data.

Figure 6. Regression model in children with ODD with coefficients.

Note. Squared boxes = Raw values. Rounded boxes = Computed scores. Dependent Variable: CBCL Social Problems. Social Cognition = Combined NEPSY-2 Theory of Mind and Face-emotion Recognition score. Executive Function = Combined NEPSY-2 Shift, Inhibition and Working Memory score. Circular arrows = Social Cognition*Executive Function interaction variable. Results from raw data are in parentheses. *p < .05. **p < .01.

Table 4. Regression analyses predicting CBCL social problems.

	DMDD									ODD
	Imputed data			Raw data			−WM			Imputed data			Raw data			−WM
	Est.	p	β	Est.	p	β	Est.	p	β	Est.	p	β	Est.	p	β	Est.	p	β
(Intercept)	6.86*	.02		5.66	.14		5.76	.09		13.28***	.00		16.46***	.00		13.93**	.01
Age	−.09	.77	−.05	.02	.96	.01	.02	.97	.01	−.74*	<.05	−.42	−1.01*	.02	−.45	−.81	.09	−.38
EF (I)	−2.12*	.01	−.39	−1.97	.06	−.36	−2.24*	.02	−.41	1.73*	.03	.38	2.30*	.02	.44	1.69	.09	.33
SC (II)	−.82	.43	−.21	−.53	.71	−.14	−.73	.54	−.19	−.53	.53	−.14	−2.03	.09	−.38	−.21	.85	−.04
Interaction (I*II)	−1.03	.07	−.53	−.85	.26	−.37	−.96	.17	−.45	−1.22	.13	−.70	−4.40**	.01	−1.97	−1.53	.38	−.73
Model statistics	F(4,48) = 2.76, p = .04, R^2=.19, R^2adj=.12.			F(4,32) = 1.31, p = .29, R^2=.14, R^2adj=.03.			F(4, 37) = 2.03, p = .11, R^2=.18, R^2adj=.09.			F(4,34) = 2.58, p = .055, R^2=.23, R^2adj=.14.			F(4,22) = 5.17, p = .004, R^2=.48, R^2adj=.39.			F(4,23) = 2.03, p = .12, R^2=.26, R^2adj=.13.

Note. Est. = Coefficients estimate. EF = Executive Function Composite. SC = Social Cognition Composite. -WM = EF Composite includes Inhibition and Cognitive Flexibility (not Working Memory) to also include < 7 years old children. *p < .05.**p < .01.***p < .001.