The Jews of Zante between the Serenissima and the Sublime Porte: the local community and the Jewish consuls (sixteenth to seventeenth centuries)

Abstract

The history of the Jews of the island of Zante (Zakynthos) during the approximately 400 years of Venetian rule of the island suffers from the lack of collaboration between specialists of Jewish history and historians of the Greek lands that were part of the Venetian overseas empire, and from a lack of sources due to the destruction of the local archives of Zakynthos in 1953. In the present study, which focuses on the first two centuries of Venetian rule, new archival materials that have not yet been used for this purpose are integrated into the state of the art in this field. This has enabled a few errors to be corrected regarding the characteristics of Jewish life, and to throw further light on the activities of the Jews on the island, the collaborations between Jewish and Christian entrepreneurs, and particularly on the functions of Jewish consuls on the island during the early modern period. The potential of a confrontation between Hebrew and Venetian sources is demonstrated through the case of the consul/rabbi Jacob of the house of HaLevi.

Keywords:

• Jacob HaLevi
• Venice
• Zakynthos
• Jewish consuls
• Patras
• shipping
• trade
• credit
• Adriatic Sea
• Joseph Hamits
• Hebrew Koran
• Peloponnese
• women
• conversion
• Ottoman Empire
• physicians
• plague
• tax-farming

Notes

 1. Andreadis, ‘Oι Eβραίoι ϵν τω Bυζαντινό Kράτϵι’; Bowman, The Jews of Byzantium; Romanos, ‘H ϵβραϊκή Koινότης της Kϵρκúρας ’; Xanthoudidis, ‘Oι Eβραίoι ϵν Kρήτη’; Chereti, ‘Aνamp;#x3AD;κδoτα βϵνϵτικά έγγραϕα’. I would like to thank Professor Chryssa Maltezou, director of the Hellenic Institute of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Studies in Venice, for her hospitality, which enabled me to continue my work on this research.

 2. Bonazzoli, ‘Gli ebrei del regno di Napoli’; Giura, ‘Gli ebrei nel regno di Napoli’.

 3. Venance Grumel, Traité d'études byzantines, I: la chronologie, 409. The only reference to Jewish presence on Zante that predates this period seems to be that of the sixteenth-century chronicler Joseph HaCohen, who, in his Vale of Tears, mentions an incident of martyrdom during anti-Jewish pogroms that took place in 1096. See Joseph HaCohen, ‘Emek ha-Bakha. Historia persecutiorum iudeorum, 30–1 [in Hebrew].

 4. David, In Zion and Jerusalem , 51 (of the English translation). The poor state of the dwellings is not ascribed specifically to the Jewish ones, as can be wrongly understood from Rivlin, Pinkas Hakehillot, 117.

 5. Sanuto, I Diarii, XXXI, 91.

 6. Kolyvà, ‘Varii siano li animi’.

 7. Sathas, Documents inédits, VI, 264.

 8. Archivio di Stato di Venezia (hereafter: ASV), Collegio, V, Secreta, Relazioni, busta 61, fol. 109r. One miaro (migliaio) was equivalent to 477 kilograms. See Martini, Manuale di metrologia, 818.

 9. Moutzali, ‘H ϵβραϊκή κoινότητα Πατρών’, 82–3.

10. Arbel, ‘The Ionian Islands’.

11. The earliest synagogue must be the one known in later sources as the Zakynthian Synagogue. See Zois, Λϵξικόν, A’, 175; Benayahu, Relation[s] between Greek and Italian Jewry, 232–3.

12. Chiotis, Iστoρικά Aπoμνημoνϵυ´ματα, III, 514; Seymour, ‘A Blood Libel in Zante’, 149, based on De Viazis, ‘H Eβραϊκή Koινότης’. In fifteenth-century Sicily, the sindici of Jewish communities were in charge of legal matters and of the care of the poor, See Milano, Storia degli ebrei in Italia, 463.

13. Karrer, Ioυδαϊσμoς και Xριστιανισμός, 104; Zois, Λϵξικόν, B’/1, 621.

14. Andreadis, H oικoνoμική Διoίκησις, 65; Seymour, ‘A Blood Libel in Zante’, 149 and note 19.

15. ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Rettori, Zante, filza 6 (a cuasa della diminuzione di reali de lire 10, che era fin ora a 6). On the real, see Lazari, Le monete dei possedimenti veneziani, 67–8; Papadopoli, Le monete di Venezia, part 3, 48; Moschonas, ‘Noμίσματα’.

16. ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Rettori, Zante, filza 3 (3 October 1609). In 1612, and again in 1624, the Balsamo family was still in debt on account of this impost: ASV, Senato Mar, reg. 71, fol. 8r; ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Rettori, Zante, filza 8.

17. ASV, Collegio, Risposte da fuori, busta 324, fol. 107; Ploumidis, Aιτήματα, 31, No. 109.

18. See Jacoby, ‘Venice and the Venetian Jews’; Ravid, ‘The Venetian Government and the Jews’.

19. In order to avoid confusion, the organized Christian community of Zante will be henceforth referred to as the comunità, and the Jewish community as ‘the community’.

20. ASV, Senato Mar, reg. 32, fol. 126–7, and ibid., filza 10. In order to avoid confusion, the organized Christian community of Zante will be henceforth referred to as the comunità, and the Jewish community as ‘the community’; ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Rettori, Zante, filza 31. See also Sathas, Documents inédits, V, 112 and Moschonas, ‘Hϵβραϊκή διασπoρά’, 115–16. On the capitoli, see Kolyvà, ‘“Obedir et esseguir”’.

21. Kolyvà, ‘Για τo “Φoντϵγo”’. For the prostichi, see Michelon, ‘La peste dei prosticchi’, and also Pagratis’ paper in the present volume. For the developments of the currant and olive-oil sectors in later periods, see Pagano de Divitiis, ‘English Imports of Raisins’; Fusaro, Uva passa; Ciriacono, Olio ed ebrei, 65, 96; Costantini, ‘L'olio della Serenissima’.

22. ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, busta 836 bis.

23. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 10. Similar fears were later expressed at least on two occasions by the island's provveditori Zuan Grimani (1596) and Francesco Donado (in 1614). See ASV, Collegio, V, Relazioni, busta 87.

24. De Viazis, ‘H Eβραϊκή Koινότης’, 727; Seymour, ‘A Blood Libel in Zante’. The affirmation as if the ghetto in Zante was instituted in 1553 (Rivlin, Pinkas Hakehillot, 118) is therefore erroneous.

25. Vigopoulou, ‘Mαρτιρίϵς για ϵβραίoυς’, 89–90.

26. ASV, Senato, Dispacci Rettori, filza 76 (1670).

27. ASV, Senato Mar, reg. 32, fols. 165r–v; Sathas, Documents inédits, V, 116.

28. On the Reggimento, see Kolyvà, H Zάκυνθoς, 100ff.

29. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 10. Until 1555, a private agreement could be sufficient for stipulating a loan in Zante. It was only in that year that it became obligatory to register such agreements, including all their main conditions, in the Libro special kept in the chancery of the Zantiot comunità. See ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Rettori, Zante, filza 31. The fact that Provveditore Andrea Falier issued an order on 9 August 1647, obligating all local notaries to register their respective deeds in the Libro special under penalty of mutilation probably reflects the difficulties of implementing such a control. See Kolyvà, Aρχϵιoνoμία, 389–90.

30. Sathas, Documents inédits, V, 120–1. Even during the period of extreme tension around the Cyprus War, when the Jews in various Venetian possessions (including Venice itself) were suspected of collaboration with the enemy, the Jews of Zante remained unharmed, despite similar accusations raised against them. For these developments, see Arbel, Trading Nations, 63–5. For suspicions raised against Jews, see the report presented in Venice by Alvise Minotto, the returning provveditore of Zante, in 1578, ASV, Collegio, V, Secreta, Relazioni, busta 62, fasc. 2.

31. Zois, Iστoρία, 372. Dyeing was an occupation widely diffused among Jews in the eastern Mediterranean. See Jacoby, ‘Jews in the Byzantine Economy’, 229–31, 236, 240; Ankori, ‘Giacomo Foscarini’, 86. On Zante's salt see Kolyvà, ‘Le saline di Zante’. When oil became a major product of Zante in the eighteenth century, Jews were also involved in products based on olive oil as well.

32. Ploumidis, ‘Tα Eπτάνησα’; Arbel, ‘Colonie d'oltremare’, 960; Arbel, ‘The Ionian Islands’. For the islands’ function as emporia for goods shipped on merchant galleys, see, for example: Sanuto, I diarii, XVIII, 10 (1514); Sanuto, I diarii, XXXVI, 382 (1524); ASV, Senato Mar, filza 9 (1553).

33. ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Rettori, Zante, filza 9.

34. ASV, Senato Mar, reg. 32, fols. 115v–116r; ASV, Cinque Savi alla Mercanzia, serie II, busta 44, fasc. 102.I; Sathas, Documents inédits, V, 110–1. On grana, see Molà, The Silk Industry, 109–111; Jacoby, ‘Silk economics’, 211.

35. ASV, Senato, Provveditori di Terra e Mar, busta 876.

36. ASV, Senato, Deliberazioni, Rettori, reg. 6, fol. 192.

37. ASV, Minor Consiglio, Serenissima Signoria, filza 168; ASV, Cinque Savi alla mercanzia, busta 51. According to Boerio, ‘Zaco’ signifies a coat of mail (maglia di ferro). See Boerio, Dizionario, 804.

38. Arbel, Trading Nations, 169–184, esp. 178.

39. Konstantinidou, ‘Santi rifugi di sanità’.

40. ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Rettori, Zante, filza 9. The physicians who testified in this case were Efraim Corre [Korre], Jacob Uriel, and Alessandro Cernovicchio.

41. ASV, Senato Mar, reg. 32, fol. 127r; De Viazis, ‘H Eβραϊκή Koινότης’, 634–5; Zois, Λϵξικόν, A’/1, 175; Aaron Alpron exercised this office during the plague years of 1728–31. See Konstantinidou, To κακό oδϵυ´ϵι, 65.

42. Kupfer, ‘Ḥamiẓ’, 305; Kupfer, ‘Rabbi Yosef Hamits in Zante’; Rivlin, Pinkas Hakehillot, 118. Ḥamiẓ was also an author of several religious writings. I am grateful to Benjamin Arbel for this information.

43. For example, ASV, Sanato, Secreta, Dispacci, Rettori, Zante, filza 6; ASV, Cinque Savii alla mercanzia, serie II, busta 44/fasc. 102I, 102 III. Cf. Pagratis, ‘To κoνσoλάτoν’.

44. On the emergence of Jewish consuls in the early modern Mediterranean, see Shmuelevitz, The Jews of the Ottoman Empire, 147; Arbel, Trading Nations, 162–4.

45. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 205 (30 January 1614 m.v.); Papakosta, ‘H ϵμπoρικoί πρόξϵνoι στα Iόνια Nησιά’, 580, note 19.

46. The names of the signatories are: of the Alvelanza family, Abram and Samuel; of the Charob family, Daniel, Giacob, and Sabatai; of the Cohen family (or families), Obadia, Mose, Iazechel, Reuben, Gabriel, and Abram; of the Sami family, Rafael and Salamo; of the Albaali family: Yom-Tob and Isac; of the Iacur (or Iachur) family, Moise and Siman-Tob. Other signatories were Josef Zichri, Salamo Muzazon, Ionna Pepanò, Isac Obadia, Elia Pogliti, Elia Isachi, Jacob Cofini, Aaron di Menachem, Isac Isachi, Isac Abichien, Isac Saracusi, Juda Missan, Samuel da Coron, Isac Achim, Mordochai Misini, Isac Levi, Salamo Sarfathi, and Rava Cevi.

47. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 205 (30 January 1614 m.v.). On the real(e), see above, note 15.

48. The merchants who signed in 1612 the renewal of Jacob HaLevi's office as consul on Zante were: of the Charob family, Daniel, Giacob, and Sabatai; of the Cohen family (or families), Obadia, Moise, Iazechel, Reuben, Josef, and Siman-Tob; of the Sami family, Rafael and Salamo; of the Hamar family, Sabatai and Salamon. Likewise the same document was signed by Abram Alvelanza, Josef Zichri, Salamo Muzazon, Ionna Pepano, Elia Atun, Salamo Catem, Isac Obadia, Abram Sarda, Salom Gialmassi, Isac Faras, Sabatai Rafael, Mose Salach, Ghedaglia Abdun, Semuel da Coron, Iuda Missan, Mose Zigiag, Isac Hachim, Isac Hasdai Chaim, Isac Abichiem, and Siman-Tob Iachur.

49. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 205. See also ASV, Senato Mar, reg. 72, fol. 148v; ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, Serie II, busta 44/fasc. 101.

50. ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, Serie II, busta 44/fasc. 101.

51. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 306 (September 1636); ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, Serie II, busta 44/fasc 1012.I; ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, Risposte, reg. 16, fol. 186.

52. ASV, Cinque Savii alla mercanzia, busta 44/fasc. 102I, and busta 84/fasc. 275 (23 December 1623).

53. ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Zante, filza 9.

54. ASV, Senato, Secreta, Dispacci, Zante, filza 9; ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, busta 44/fasc. 102I, doc. No. 10. For a detailed tariff of this impost, see ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, busta 84 (tariff re-established on 13 February 1591).

55. Ya‘aqov ben Yisra'el LeVeit HaLevi, She'elot u-Teshuvot [1614 and 1632].

56. Hacker, ‘Levi (Bet Halevi), Jacob ben Israel’; Benayahu, Relation[s] between Greek and Italian Jewry, 230–6. On his translation of the Koran, see Lazarus-Yafeh, ‘A Seventeenth-Century Translation’; Basal, ‘A Seventeenth-Century Hebrew Translation’. Benjamin Arbel has kindly brought these and other Hebrew materials to my attention.

57. ASV, Senato Mar, reg. 77, fol. 167v and filza 223. To date, no trace of this documentation has been discovered. In 1628, Piero Malipiero, provveditore of Zante, was accused of usurping ‘the money of a Jewish woman’, kept in the island's public treasury. See ASV, Senato Provveditori da Terra e da Mar, busta 863bis.

58. Senato Mar, reg. 94, 188v–189r; ibid., filza 306; ASV, Cinque Savii alla mercanzia, busta 44/fasc. 101.I; ibid., Rispose, reg. 16, fol. 186.

59. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 342 (anno 1641). The company's name was ditta Nicolò Carrer et Fratelli.

60. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 342; ibid., ref. 99, fols. 324, 342 (anno 1641).

61. ASV, Senato Mar, filza 342 and reg. 99, fols. 324, 342 (1641); ibid., filza 677; ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, Risposte, reg. 34, fol. 283; ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, serie II, busta 44/fasc. 101/I.

62. ASV, Cinque Savii alla Mercanzia, serie I–II, reg. 32, fol. 229; Senato Mar, reg. 47, fol. 20r. See also Cessi, Il problema adriatico, 275–86; Romano, ‘La marine marchande vénitienne’; Tucci, ‘La marina mercantile veneziana’; Braunstein ‘A propos de l'Adriatique’; Costantini, ‘Commerci ed economie’; Wood, Levant Company, 66–72; Pagano de Divitiis, ‘Traffici inglesi in Levante’.