How Much Sport is there in Sport Physiology? Practice and Ideas in the Stockholm School of Physiology at GCI, 1941–1969

Abstract

The physiology research at the Royal Central Institute of Gymnastics (Swedish acronym: GCI) in Stockholm was never primarily focused on sports, but has made significant contributions to sport and exercise physiology. Changing ideas about the human body (from form to motor) during the early twentieth century led to criticism towards the posture-oriented Ling gymnastics. The rationalisation movement of the 1930s and onwards also paved the way for a rationalistic physiology research. GCI recruited Eric Hohwü Christensen (1904–1996) from Copenhagen for the new position as professor in physiology in 1941. Christensen built his research programme on the ideas of the Copenhagen School, focusing on basic research, bodily limits and rationalisation of exercise. The majority of research at GCI focused on basic physiology, and the main goal was to rationalise the exercise of the entire population, which was in line with the ambitions of the emerging Swedish welfare state. But applications in elite sports became a claim to fame for GCI through names such as Per-Olof Åstrand and Bengt Saltin. This article aims at showing how the research programme was outlined during Christensen's professorship, 1941–1969. How does a scientific environment focused on basic, physiological research become famous for its impact in sports?

¿Cuánto deporte hay en la fisiología del deporte? Práctica e ideas en la escuela de fisiología de Estocolmo del CGI, 1941–1969

La investigación en materia fisiológica llevada a cabo en el Real Instituto Central de Gimnasia (GCI según sus iniciales en sueco) de Estocolmo nunca estuvo principalmente centrada en el deporte de élite, aunque hizo aportaciones relevantes a la fisiología del deporte y del ejercicio. La evolución de las ideas sobre el cuerpo humano (de la forma al movimiento) a principios del siglo XX generaron críticas hacia la gimnasia de Ling, centrada en aspectos posturales. El movimiento racionalizador hegemónico a partir de los años 30 también contribuyó a fomentar una investigación racionalista en fisiología. El GCI contrató en 1941 a Eric Hohwü Christensen (1904–96), de Copenhague, para ocupar el nuevo cargo de profesor de fisiología. Christensen basó su programa investigador en las ideas de la Escuela de Copenhague, centrándose en la investigación básica, los límites corporales y la racionalización del ejercicio. La mayor parte de la investigación llevada a cabo en el GCI se centró en la fisiología básica, y su máximo objetivo era racionalizar el ejercicio para el conjunto de la población, en sintonía con las ambiciones del naciente estado del bienestar sueco. No obstante, las aplicaciones al deporte de élite reportaron fama al GCI a través de nombres como Per-Olof Åstrand y Bengt Saltin. Este artículo pretende analizar cómo se diseñó el programa de investigación durante el mandato de Christensen (1941–1969). ¿De qué manera un entorno científico centrado en la investigación fisiológica básica se hace famoso por su impacto en el deporte?

Wie viel Sport gibt es in der Sportphysiologie? Praxis und Ideen an der Stockholmer Physiologie-Schule am GCI, 1941–1969

Die Physiologie-Forschung am Königlichen Zentralinstitut für Gymnastik (schwedisches Akronym: GCI) in Stockholm konzentrierte sich nie in erster Linie auf Spitzensport, sondern hat bedeutende Beiträge zur Sport- und Bewegungsphysiologie geleistet. Sich wandelnde Vorstellungen über den menschlichen Körper (von der Form zur Bewegung) während des frühen 20. Jahrhunderts führten zu Kritik an der haltungsorientierten Ling-Gymnastik. Die Rationalisierungsbewegung der 1930er und später ebnete auch den Weg für eine rationalistische Physiologie-Forschung. Das GCI rekrutierte 1941 Eric Hohwü Christensen (1904-96) aus Kopenhagen für die neue Position als Professor für Physiologie. Christensen baute sein Forschungsprogramm auf den Ideen der Kopenhagener Schule auf, wobei er seinen Schwerpunkt auf die Grundlagenforschung, die körperlichen Grenzen und die Rationalisierung der Übung legte. Die Mehrheit der Forschung am GCI konzentrierte sich auf grundlegende Physiologie, und das Hauptziel bestand darin, die Bewegung der gesamten Bevölkerung zu rationalisieren, was mit den Ambitionen des aufstrebenden schwedischen Wohlfahrtsstaates im Einklang stand. Durch Namen wie Per-Olof Åstrand und Bengt Saltin wurden Einsätze im Spitzensport allerdings zu einem Ruhmesanspruch für das GCI. Dieser Artikel soll zeigen, wie sich das Forschungsprogramm während Christensens Professur, 1941-1969, abgrenzte. Wie wird ein wissenschaftliches Umfeld, das sich auf grundlegende physiologische Forschung konzentriert, bekannt für seinen Einfluss im Sport?

运动生理学中有多少运动？皇家中央体操学院生理学斯德哥尔摩学派的实践与理念，1941-1969

位于斯德哥尔摩的皇家中央体操学院（GCI）从来不侧重于竞技体育研究，却已对体育和运动生理学研究作出了重大贡献。关于人体（从形式到运动）的观念转变在20世纪初导致了对以姿态为导向的林氏体操的批评。20世纪30年代及以后的合理化运动则为一个理性主义的生理学研究铺平了道路。瑞典中央体操学院于1941年从哥本哈根聘请了埃里克·克里斯滕森(1904–96) 担任生理学教授。克里斯滕森构建了他的哥本哈根学派的研究计划并侧重于基础研究、人体极限和运动的合理化。瑞典中央体操学院的大部分研究都集中在基础生理学。其主要目标是使全体国民的运动合理化，而这是符合瑞典作为新兴福利国家抱负的。但中央体操中心却最终因在精英体育中的应用得以声名鹊，而这则要归功于Per-Olof Åstrand and Bengt Saltin等人。本文旨在展现该研究计划在克里斯滕森担任教授期间是如何被规划成型。一个侧重于基础生理学研究的科学部门是如何因其对体育的影响而成名？

O Quanto de Esporte Há na Fisiologia Esportiva? Prática e Ideias na Escola de Fisiologia de Estocolmo no GCI, 1941–1969

A pesquisa em fisiologia no Real Instituto Central de Ginástica (acrônimo sueco: GCI) em Estocolmo nunca teve seu foco principal nos esportes de elite, mas fez contribuições significativas à fisiologia dos esportes e do exercício. A mudança de ideias sobre o corpo humano (de forma a motor) durante o início do século XX levou a criticas sobre a ginástica Ling orientada a posturas. O movimento de racionalização da década de 1930 em diante também pavimentou o caminho para uma pesquisa de fisiologia racional. o GCI recrutou Eric Hohwü Christensen (1904–96) de Copenhague para o novo posto de professor de fisiologia, em 1941. Christensen baseou seu programa de pesquisa nas ideias da escola de Copenhague, focando-se em pesquisa básica, limites corporais e racionalização do exercício. A maioria das pesquisas no GCI tinham foco na fisiologia básica e seu objetivo principal era racionalizar o exercício de toda a população, o que estava de acordo com as ambições do emergente Estado de bem-estar social sueco. Mas as aplicações no esporte de elite se tornaram uma reivindicação à fama para o GCI através de nomes como Per-Olof Åstrand e Bengt Saltin. Este artigo tem como objetivo mostrar como o programa de pesquisa foi delineado durante a estadia de Christensen como professor, de 1941 a 1969. Como um ambiente científico com foco em pesquisa de fisiologia básica se tornou famoso por seu impacto nos esportes?

スポーツ生理学の中でスポーツはいかばかりか？１９４１年から１９６９年までの王立中央体操学校におけるストックホルム学派生理学の思想と実践

ストックホルムにある王立中央体操学校（ＧＣＩ）での生理学研究は、エリートスポーツを第一義的な対象としたことはないものの、スポーツとエクササイズの生理学に重要な貢献を行ってきた。２０世紀初頭の身体についての思想の転換（形体から動力へ）は、姿勢重視のリング式体操に対する批判をもたらした。また１９３０年代以降の合理化運動も、合理主義的生理学研究の下地となった。１９４１年に、ＧＣＩはコペンハーゲンからエリック＝ホーヴ・クリステンセンを招聘し、生理学教授という新たなポストに据えた。クリステンセンは、基礎研究と身体の限界、エクササイズの合理化に焦点を当てるコペンハーゲン学派の思想に基づいた研究プログラムを作り上げた。ＧＣＩにおける研究の大部分は基礎生理学にフォーカスし、その主たる目標は人口全体のエクササイズの合理化となった。またこれは福祉国家としてのスウェーデンの隆盛という国家的野心とも合致していた。しかしながら、パー＝オルフ・アストランドやベン・アルティンといった研究者の名を通じて、エリートスポーツへの応用はＧＣＩに名声をもたらすところとなった。本稿の目的は、クリステンセンが教鞭をとった１９４１年から１９６９年までの間、研究プログラムがどのように策定されたかを示すことにある。基礎生理学研究にフォーカスした科学環境が、いかにしてスポーツへの影響によって名を上げるに至るのだろうか。

Keywords::

• rational training
• exercise physiology
• Eric Hohwü Christensen
• GCI
• Sweden
• welfare state

Notes

^1. From 1966, GCI changed its name to GIH, acronym for Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan (The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences).

^2. Yttergren, Träna är livet.

^3. Schantz, “Om Lindhardskolan” and Åstrand, “Fysiologiska institutionens tillkomst och utveckling.”

^4. Krüger and Riordan, European Cultures in Sport; Berg and König, “History of Sports Medicine;” Roger and Terret, European Athletics; Mangan, ‘Manufactured’ Masculinity; Heggie, A History of British Sport Medicine; Tipton, Exercise Physiology; Berryman and Park, Sport and Exercise Science; Rabinbach, The Human Motor and Meinander and Mangan, The Nordic World.

^5. Asmussen, Gymnastikstudiet and Bonde and Frøslev Jensen, “Gymnastics.”

^6. Saltin and Hellsten, “The Legacy of the Copenhagen School,” 347–8.

^7. Schantz, “Om Lindhardskolan,” 148–50.

^8. Bonde and Frøslev Jensen, “Gymnastics,” 1929.

^9. Lindroth, Ling – från storhet till upplösning, 116–7.

^10. Asmussen, Gymnastikstudiet, 71 and Söderberg, Från gestalt till motor, 30.

^11. Bonde and Frøslev Jensen, “Gymnastics,” 1931–34.

^12. Lindhard, Den specielle gymnastikteori and Lindhard, Den almindelige gymnastikteori. There is also an English edition: Lindhard, The Theory of Gymnastics.

^13. Söderberg, Från gestalt till motor, 26.

^14. Söderberg, Tre perspektiv på idrott och medicinvetenskap, 10–1, 22–3.

^15. Söderberg, Från gestalt till motor, 36.

^16. SOU (Swedish Governmental Investigations), 1926: 10, 21–4.

^17. Söderberg, Från gestalt till motor, 34.

^18. Nationalencyklopedin, “Ernst Abramson.”

^19. Söderberg, Från gestalt till motor, 36–8.

^20. Schantz, “Om Lindhardskolan,” 144.

^21. Schantz, “Om Lindhardskolan,” 142–3.

^22. Jørgensen, “From Balck to Nurmi,” 71–2.

^23. GIH, “Från GCI till GIH.”

^24. The ideology of Ling gymnastics has been studied in detail. The most important contributions are Lindroth, Ling – från storhet till upplösning and Ljunggren, Kroppens bildning.

^25. Söderberg, Från gestalt till motor, 37–8 et passim.

^26. Rabinbach, The Human Motor, 72–8 et passim.

^27. Hoberman, Mortal Engines, 11.

^28. Beamish and Ritchie, “From Fixed Capacities to Performance-Enhancement,” 429.

^29. Johnson, Human Performance, 63–5 et passim.

^30. Foucault, The Will to Knowledge, 138–9 et passim. See also Foucault, Madness and Civilization.

^31. Lindroth, Ling – från storhet till upplösning, 98.

^32. Lundquist Wanneberg, Kroppens medborgarfostran, 134–42, 208–11.

^33. Lundquist Wanneberg, Kroppens medborgarfostran, 167.

^34. The Swedish rationalisation movement has been studied in De Geer, Rationaliseringsrörelsen i Sverige.

^35. Björck, Folkhemsbyggare, 127–33.

^36. Lundquist Wanneberg, Kroppens medborgarfostran, 33, 207, 216–8.

^37. Åstrand, Kondition och hälsa, 12, 34.

^38. Lövgren, Hemarbete som politik, 22–3.

^39. Finstad, Varme visjoner og frosne fremskritt, 229–36 et passim.

^40. Hohwü Christensen, Kroppsövningarnas fysiologi och hygien, 138 (my translation).

^41. Åstrand, Kondition och hälsa, 38–9.

^42. Taylorism in Sweden has been discussed by, among others: De Geer, Rationaliseringsrörelsen i Sverige, 37 et passim.

^43. Christensen, Kroppsövningarnas fysiologi och hygien, 121.

^44. De Geer, Rationaliseringsrörelsen i Sverige, 317–8, 358 et passim.

^45. Blondel and Terret, “Towards an Internationalization of Workers' Training.”

^46. Hirdman, Att lägga livet till rätta, 176–87 et passim.

^47. Schön, The Reflective Practitioner, 37–9.

^48. Bonde and Frøslev Jensen, “Gymnastics,” 1936.

^49. Åstrand, “Fysiologiska institutionens tillkomst och utveckling,” 197–8.

^50. Nybom, Kunskap, politik, samhälle, 64–9.

^51. Hohwü Christensen, Kroppsövningarnas fysiologi och hygien, 138 (my translation).

^52. Åstrand, “Fysiologiska institutionens tillkomst och utveckling,” 200–2.

^53. Schantz, “Om Lindhardskolan,” 148.

^54. Nationalencyklopedin, “Tidskrift i gymnastik och idrott.”

^55. Hohwü Christensen, “Gymnastiken och den allmänna träningen av organismen,” 3–4, my translation.

^56. Hohwü Christensen, “GCI:s fysiologiska institution,” 49.

^57. Lindroth, Ling – från storhet till upplösning, 72–4.

^58. Some examples are hydration, high-intensity interval training and carbohydrate loading; the latter used by Swedish skiers (most notably Karl-Åke Asph, Sixten Jernberg, Janne Stefansson, Assar Rönnlund and Sture Grahn) in the 1962 World Cup and the 1964 Olympics with good result. Åstrand, “Fysiologiska institutionens tillkomst och utveckling,” 230–1.

^59. Hohwü Christensen, “Förslag till ny utbildningsplan för lärare i gymnastik,” 167–8 et passim.

^60. Foucault, The Will to Knowledge, 140–5.

^61. Hohwü Christensen, “Förslag till ny utbildningsplan för lärare i gymnastik,” 178, my translation.

^62. Schantz, “Om Lindhardskolan,” 154.

^63. Exemplified by: Hohwü Christensen and Högberg, “The Efficiency of Anaerobical Work;” Hohwü Christensen et al., “The Influence of Rest Pauses” and Hohwü Christensen et al., “Intermittent and Continuous Running.”

^64. Hohwü Christensen et al., “Intermittent Muscular Work,” 452.

^65. Schantz, “Om Lindhardskolan,” 155.

^66. Åstrand and Saltin, “Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Athletes” and Saltin and Stenberg, “Circulatory Response to Prolonged Severe Exercise.”

^67. Karlsson et al., “Training of the Oxygen Transport System,” 1065.

^68. Heggie, A History of British Sport Medicine, 101.

^69. Rodahl et al., “Maximal Heart Rate During Work,” 566.

^70. Åstrand, “Fysiologiska institutionens tillkomst och utveckling,” 230–1.

^71. Hedman, “The Available Glycogen in Man,” 307–10, 319–20.

^72. Hedman et al., “Circulatory and Respiratory Adaptation,” 256–8.

^73. Dahl et al., Textbook of Work Physiology.

^74. Åstrand, “Fysiologiska institutionens tillkomst och utveckling,” 235–6.

^75. Tipton, Exercise Physiology, 497–510.

^76. Johnson, Human Performance, 115–7.

^77. Åstrand, “Fysiologiska institutionens tillkomst och utveckling,” 215.

^78. Bonde and Frøslev Jensen, “Gymnastics,” 1936.

^79. Johnson, Human Performance, 69–70.

^80. GIH archive, written correspondence, copy of letter from A.V. Hill to Johannes Lindhard, June 10, 1936.

^81. GIH archive, Christensen, books and re-prints.

^82. Wrynn, “The Athlete in the Making,” 129.

^83. One example can be found in: Asmussen et al., “Blood Lactate and Oxygen Debt,” 62.

^84. Wrynn, “The Athlete in the Making,” 128–30.

^85. Wrynn, “The Athlete in the Making,” 128.

^86. For example: Saltin et al., “Diet, Muscle Glycogen and Physical Performance” and Hedman, ‘The Available Glycogen in Man.”

^87. Åstrand, “Lactate Content in Sweat.”

^88. Heggie, A History of British Sport Medicine, 101.

^89. Åstrand and Saltin, “Oxygen Uptake During the First Minutes” and Åstrand and Saltin, “Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Athletes.”

^90. Beamish and Ritchie, “From Fixed Capacities to Performance-Enhancement,” 418–9.

^91. Johnson, Human Performance, 100–3.

^92. GIH archive, Department of Physiology, written correspondence 1954, letter from Ernst Jokl to Erik Hohwü-Christensen, November 22, 1954.

^93. Jokl, “Professor AV Hill.”

^94. GIH archive, Department of Physiology, written correspondence 1954 and 1955.

^95. Park, “Physicians, Scientists, Exercise and Athletics,” 16.

^96. Högberg, “Undersökningar över steglängd och stegfrekvens vid löpning,” 258–61 et passim.

^97. Norberg, “A Mutual Dependency,” 131–2.

^98. Yttergren, Träna är livet, 119–22.

^99. Lundqvist Wanneberg, Kroppens medborgarfostran, 134–42.

^100. Svensson, Interview with Per-Olof Åstrand, February 3, 2012.

^101. Hohwü Christensen, “Förslag till ny utbildningsplan för lärare i gymnastik.”

^102. Svensson, Interview with Bengt Saltin, February 13, 2012.

^103. Svensson, Interview with Per-Olof Åstrand, February 3, 2012.

^104. Sandblad, Olympia och Valhalla, 346–7 et passim.

^105. Hoberman, Mortal Engines, 5–6

^106. Hedman et al., “Circulatory and Respiratory Adaptation,” 256–8.

^107. Heggie, A History of British Sport Medicine, 66.

^108. Heggie, A History of British Sport Medicine, 68–9.

^109. Polanyi, Personal Knowledge and Schön, The Reflective Practitioner.

^110. 110. Bonde and Frøslev Jensen, “Gymnastics,” 1931.

^111. Yttergren, Träna är livet, 121–2.

^112. Krüger, “The History of Middle and Long Distance Running,” 6 et passim.

^113. Yttergren, Träna är livet, 118–22.

^114. Yttergren, Träna är livet, 132 and Reindell et al., Das Intervalltraining.

^115. Krüger, “Training Theory and Why Roger Bannister,” 306.

^116. Nationalencyklopedin, “Paul Högberg.”

^117. Åstrand, “Fysiologiska institutionens tillkomst och utveckling,” 231–2.

^118. Karlsson and Hermansen, “Skidlöparnas barmarksträning” and Diamant et al., “Muscle Tissue Lactate after Maximal Exercise in Man.”

^119. Heggie, A History of British Sport Medicine, 90–1.

^120. Hirdman, Att lägga livet till rätta, 9–10 et passim.

^121. Åstrand, Kondition och hälsa, 38–9.

^122. Schantz, “Om Lindhardskolan,” 149–50.

^123. Pettersson, Handslaget. See also: Nybom, Kunskap, politik, samhälle.

^124. Svensson, Interview with Bengt Saltin, February 13, 2012.

^125. Svensson, Interview with Per-Olof Åstrand, February 3, 2012.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Daniel Svensson

Daniel Svensson is a Ph.D. student at the Division of History of Science, Technology and Environment at KTH Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm.