Enforced Ostracism? Analysis of the International Sports Organizations’ Reactions to the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine

Abstract

The Russian invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022 triggered widespread reactions. The global call for the isolation of Russia and its collaborator Belarus has also involved the world of sport, leading to the expulsion of Russian and Belarusian athletes from international competitions. The decisions leading to the expulsion were analyzed from the perspective of their factors, timing, and the international sports organizations’ (ISOs) traditional approach to mixing sport and politics. During these developments, various stakeholders have been exerting pressure on the ISOs by voicing their expectations towards sanctioning Russia and even using the threat of boycott. Multiple Streams Framework has been employed in an attempt to understand the decision-making processes of the Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), and the International Paralympic Committee (IPC), demonstrating that external pressure has played the overriding role in the process leading to the isolation of Russia and Belarus in international sport, marking the continuation of the recent evolution of ISOs’ approach to the interconnection between politics and sport.

Keywords:

• Russia
• Belarus
• invasion of Ukraine
• sports isolation
• sport politics

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

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6 Ibid., 9–10.

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55 New York Times, ‘Companies Are Getting Out of Russia, Sometimes at a Cost’, https://www.nytimes.com/article/russia-invasion-companies.html (accessed November 13, 2023).

56 Olympic Truce is a materialization of the IOC’s goal of contributing to the preservation of peace. Owing to the IOC’s cooperation with the UN, since 1993 the UN General Assembly every two years has been adopting a resolution entitled ‘Building a peaceful and better world through sport and the Olympic ideal’, urging UN member states to observe the Olympic Truce. See Jim Parry, ‘The Religio Athletae, Olympism and Peace’, in Olympic Truce: Sport as a Platform for Peace, ed. Konstantinos Georgiadis and Angelos Syrigos (Athens: International Olympic Truce Centre, 2009), 37–49.

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58 ‘Media Release: FIFA Expresses Hope for Rapid Cessation of Hostilities and Peace in Ukraine,’ FIFA, https://www.fifa.com/about-fifa/organisation/fifa-council/media-releases/fifa-expresses-hope-for-rapid-cessation-of-hostilities-and-peace-in-ukraine (accessed November 22, 2022).

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75 FIFA Council is composed of the FIFA President and the six Confederation Presidents.

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77 ‘Statement of the Football Association of Poland,’ PZPN, https://pzpn.pl/federacja/aktualnosci/2022-02-27/oswiadczenie-pzpn-w-sprawie-inwazji-militarnej-rosji-na-ukraine (accessed February 27, 2022).

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81 Cezary Kulesza (@Czarek_Kulesza), W związku ze skandaliczną decyzją FIFA, PZPN wysłał dziś pismo do wszystkich federacji w Europie,’ Twitter Post, February 27, 2022, https://twitter.com/Czarek_Kulesza/status/1498068146283900928.

82 Cezary Kulesza (@Czarek_Kulesza), ‘Anglia, Albania, Czechy, Dania, Irlandia, Norwegia, Szkocja, Szwajcaria, Szwecja, Walia… - piłkarska Europa idzie polską drogą. Razem jesteśmy silniejsi!,’ Twitter Post, February 28, 2022, https://twitter.com/Czarek_Kulesza/status/1498284660744409089.

83 ‘IOC EB Recommends No Participation of Russian and Belarusian Athletes and Officials,’ IOC, https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-eb-recommends-no-participation-of-russian-and-belarusian-athletes-and-officials (accessed November 28, 2022).

84 See: ‘IOC President Writes to Olympic Movement Regarding Humanitarian Assistance for the Olympic Community of Ukraine,’ IOC, https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-president-writes-to-olympic-movement-regarding-humanitarian-assistance-for-the-olympic-community-of-ukraine (accessed November 28, 2022).; ‘Initial USD 200,000 Released to Support Ukrainian Olympic Community,’ IOC, https://olympics.com/ioc/news/initial-usd-200-000-released-to-support-ukrainian-olympic-community (accessed November 28, 2022).

85 ‘FIFA/UEFA Suspend Russian Clubs and National Teams from All Competitions,’ FIFA, https://www.fifa.com/tournaments/mens/worldcup/qatar2022/media-releases/fifa-uefa-suspend-russian-clubs-and-national-teams-from-all-competitions (accessed December 1, 2022).; ‘FIFA/UEFA Suspend Russian Clubs and National Teams from All Competitions,’ UEFA, https://www.uefa.com/insideuefa/mediaservices/mediareleases/news/0272-148df1faf082-6e50b5ea1f84-1000–fifa-uefa-suspend-russian-clubs-and-national-teams/ (accessed December 1, 2022).

86 ‘UEFA Ends Partnership with Gazprom,’ UEFA, https://www.uefa.com/insideuefa/mediaservices/mediareleases/news/0272-148df50f5c71-e40e92534a4b-1000–uefa-ends-partnership-with-gazprom/(accessed November 29, 2022).

87 ‘CAS Upholds FIFA Ban on Russian Teams While Court Deliberates,’ Reuters, https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/sports/cas-upholds-fifa-ban-russian-teams-while-court-deliberates-2022-03-18/(accessed November 15, 2022).

88 ‘IPC makes decisions regarding RPC and NPC Belarus,’ IPC, https://www.paralympic.org/press-release/ipc-makes-decisions-regarding-rpc-and-npc-belarus (accessed December 1, 2022).

89 ‘British Paralympic Association Statement - IPC Decision,’ British Paralympic Association, https://paralympics.org.uk/articles/british-paralympic-association-statement-ipc-decision (accessed November 29, 2022).

90 Lawrence Ostlere, ‘Winter Paralympics: Russian and Belarusian Athletes to Compete as Neutrals at Beijing 2022,’ Independent, https://www.independent.co.uk/sport/winter-olympics/paralympics-russia-belarus-athletes-news-b2026684.html (accessed December 2, 2023).

91 ‘Oświadczenie w związku z dopuszczeniem Rosji i Białorusi do rywalizacji w Pekinie,’ Polish Paralympic Committee, https://paralympic.org.pl/oswiadczenie-w-zwiazku-z-dopuszczeniem-rosji-i-bialorusi-do-rywalizacji-w-pekinie/(accessed December 1, 2022).

92 ‘Russian, Belarusian Athletes Banned from Paralympics over Ukraine,’ Al Jazeera, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/3/3/russian-belarusian-athletes-banned-from-paralympics-over-ukraine (accessed December 1, 2022).

93 ‘IPC to decline athlete entries from RPC and NPC Belarus for Beijing 2022’.

94 ‘Zmiana decyzji IPC! Sportowcy z Rosji i Białorusi wykluczeni z rywalizacji w igrzyskach w Pekinie,’ Polish Paralympic Committee, https://paralympic.org.pl/zmiana-decyzji-ipc-sportowcy-z-rosji-i-bialorusi-wykluczeni-z-rywalizacji-w-igrzyskach-w-pekinie/(accessed December 1, 2022); ‘British Paralympic Association Statement - IPC Decision on RPC and NPC Belarus,’ British Paralympic Association, https://paralympics.org.uk/articles/british-paralympic-association-statement-ipc-decision-on-rpc (accessed December 1, 2022).

95 ‘IPC to Decline Athlete Entries from RPC and NPC Belarus for Beijing 2022.’ .

96 Ibid.

97 ‘Belarus Teams to Play on Neutral Ground in UEFA Competitions,’ UEFA, https://www.uefa.com/insideuefa/mediaservices/mediareleases/news/0273-1493944bb9c8-f5773a44dabd-1000–belarus-teams-to-play-on-neutral-ground/(accessed November 20, 2022).

98 Johan Lindholm, ‘How Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine Shook Sports’ Foundation’, The International Sports Law Journal 22 (2022): 3; Hans Erik Næss, ‘The Neutrality Paradox’, 99–115.

99 Kingdon, ‘Agendas, Alternatives’, 19–20.

100 ‘Olympic Charter,’ IOC, In force as from 8 Aug. 2021, Lausanne, 8; 41–2 45–6, 49.

101 Michał M. Kobierecki, Sports Diplomacy: Sports in the Diplomatic Activities of States and Non-State Actors (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2020), 228.

102 ‘FIFA Statutes,’ FIFA, June 2019 edition, 18–19, 28.

103 ‘UEFA Statutes’, UEFA, 2021, Nyon, 7.

104 ‘IPC Constitution,’ IPC, December 2011, 3, 7.

105 Lutan and Hong, ‘The Politicization of Sport’: 426–7.

106 Courtney W. Mason, ‘The Bridge to Change: The 1976 Montreal Olympic Games, South African Apartheid

Policy, and the Olympic Boycott Paradigm,’ in Onward to the Olympics. Historical Perspectives on the

Olympic Games, ed. Gerald P. Schaus and Stephen R. Wenn (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2007), 290.

107 See: Lukas Aubin, ‘What Future for Putin’s Sport Power?’, in The Geopolitical Economy of Sport: Power, Politics, Money, and State, ed. Simon Chadwick, Paul Widdop, and Michael M. Goldman (Abingdon: Routledge 2023), 29–35.

108 Goretti, ‘The Sporting Sanctions against Russia’: 2, 11–12.

109 See: ‘Statement on Russia’s War on Ukraine and International Sport’ Department for Culture, Media & Sport, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/statement-on-russias-war-on-ukraine-and-international-sport/statement-on-russias-war-on-ukraine-and-international-sport (accessed June 9, 2023).

110 ‘Following a Request by the 11th Olympic Summit, IOC Issues Recommendations for International Federations and International Sports Event Organisers on the Participation of Athletes with a Russian or Belarusian Passport in International Competitions,’ IOC, https://olympics.com/ioc/news/ioc-issues-recommendations-for-international-federations-and-international-sports-event-organisers (accessed June 9, 2023).

111 ‘Q&A Regarding the Participation of Athletes with a Russian or Belarusian Passport in International Competitions,’ IOC, https://olympics.com/ioc/news/q-a-on-solidarity-with-ukraine-sanctions-against-russia-and-belarus-and-the-status-of-athletes-from-these-countries (accessed June 6, 2023).

112 ‘Strict Eligibility Conditions in Place as IOC EB Approves Individual Neutral Athletes (AINs) for the Olympic Games Paris 2024,’ IOC, https://olympics.com/ioc/news/strict-eligibility-conditions-in-place-as-ioc-eb-approves-individual-neutral-athletes-ains-for-the-olympic-games-paris-2024 (accessed December 2, 2023).

113 Reuters, ‘UEFA Axes Plan to Lift Under-17 Ban on Russia Teams’, https://www.reuters.com/sports/soccer/uefa-axes-plan-lift-under-17-ban-russia-teams-2023-10-10/(accessed October 15, 2023).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Anna Kobierecka

Anna Kobierecka , PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Theory of International Relations and Security, Faculty of International and Political Studies, University of Lodz. In her research she focuses on the nation branding and public diplomacy. She is the author of numerous books and scientific articles.

Michał Marcin Kobierecki

Michał Marcin Kobierecki , PhD with habilitation, is an associate professor in the Department of Political Theory and Thought, Faculty of International and Political Studies, University of Lodz. His research interests include sports diplomacy, politics and sport, nation branding and public diplomacy with a specific focus on the use of sport. He is the author of numerous books, chapters, and scientific articles.