Who’s afraid of Virginia Wu? US employment footprints and self-sufficiency

Figures & data

TABLE 1. The world input–output table.

	Intermediate use in:					Final use in:
	1	…	R	…	N	1	…	R	…	N	Total output
Product flows from
country 1	Z${}^{11}$		Z${}^{1R}$		Z${}^{1N}$	f${}^{11}$		f${}^{1R}$		f${}^{1N}$	x${}^1$
$⋮$	$⋮$		$⋮$		$⋮$	$⋮$		$⋮$		$⋮$	$⋮$
country R	Z${}^{R1}$		Z${}^{RR}$		Z${}^{RN}$	f${}^{R1}$		f${}^{RR}$		f${}^{RN}$	x${}^R$
$⋮$	$⋮$		$⋮$		$⋮$	$⋮$		$⋮$		$⋮$	$⋮$
country N	Z${}^{N1}$		Z${}^{NR}$		Z${}^{NN}$	f${}^{N1}$		f${}^{NR}$		f${}^{NN}$	x${}^N$
Value added	(v${}^1{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$		(v${}^R{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$		(v${}^N{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$
Total inputs	(x${}^1{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$		(x${}^R{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$		(x${}^N{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$
Labor inputs	(l${}^1{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$	$\dots$	(l${}^R{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$	$\dots$	(l${}^N{)}^{\mathrm{\prime }}$

TABLE 2. US employment footprint, by region.

	1995	2000	2005	2006	2007	2008	Change 2008–1995
A. Workers embodied in US consumption (in thousands of workers)
US workers (1)	124,106	138,057	140,053	141,750	142,076	140,874	16,768
All foreign workers (2)	78,931	118,665	142,285	144,441	132,622	123,472	44,541
EU-27 workers	4066	6635	5662	5636	5161	5004	938
Other developed	5157	6827	6364	6267	5930	5428	271
China	25,562	29,574	45,172	46,337	43,641	37,607	12,046
Other emerging	15,638	27,913	28,841	29,905	24,951	22,283	6644
Rest of World	28,508	47,717	56,246	56,297	52,939	53,150	24,642
Footprint (3) = (1) + (2)	203,037	256,722	282,337	286,191	274,698	264,346	61,309
Notes: (1) shows the US workers embodied in US consumption (in thousands) and (2) shows the foreign workers embodied in US consumption (in thousands). The last column shows the change (in thousands of workers) between 1995 and 2008.
B. Workers embodied in US consumption (as percentage of all embodied workers)
US workers (1)	61.1	53.8	49.6	49.5	51.7	53.3	–7.8
All foreign workers (2)	38.9	46.2	50.4	50.5	48.3	46.7	7.8
EU-27 workers	2.0	2.6	2.0	2.0	1.9	1.9	–0.1
Other developed	2.5	2.7	2.3	2.2	2.2	2.1	–0.5
China	12.6	11.5	16.0	16.2	15.9	14.2	1.6
Other emerging	7.7	10.9	10.2	10.4	9.1	8.4	0.7
Rest of World	14.0	18.6	19.9	19.7	19.3	20.1	6.1
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100

Notes: (1) shows the US workers embodied in US consumption (as a percent share of all workers embodied in US consumption) and (2) shows the foreign workers embodied in US consumption (as percentage share of all workers embodied in US consumption). The last column shows the percentage point change in the shares between 1995 and 2008.

TABLE 3. Who works for whom? (in thousands of workers).

		1995	2000	2005	2006	2007	2008	Change 2008–1995
Manufacturing	US workers for US consumption	14,873	14,994	12,228	11,921	11,419	10,674	–4200
	Import of foreign workers	26,307	42,874	51,186	49,745	45,753	41,405	15,098
	Export of US workers	3744	3775	3205	3431	3638	3852	107
Services	US workers for US consumption	98,919	111,524	115,744	117,271	118,284	118,405	19,485
	Import of foreign workers	15,351	25,969	31,248	32,344	29,991	28,770	13,420
	Export of US workers	5364	5359	5161	5599	6247	6305	942
Other	US workers for US consumption	10,313	11,539	12,081	12,558	12,373	11,795	1482
	Import of foreign workers	37,273	49,821	59,851	62,351	56,878	53,297	16,024
	Export of US workers	766	525	484	540	606	712	–53
Total	US workers for US consumption	124,106	138,057	140,053	141,750	142,076	140,874	16,768
	Import of foreign workers	78,931	118,665	142,285	144,441	132,622	123,472	44,541
	Export of US workers	9873	9659	8850	9570	10,491	10,869	996

Notes: The first row next to each sector shows the number of US workers of that sector embodied in US consumption (in thousands); the second row next to each sector shows the number of foreign workers of that sector embodied in US consumption (in thousands); and the third row next to each sector shows the number of US workers of that sector embodied in foreign consumption (in thousands). The last column shows the change (in thousands of workers) between 1995 and 2008.

TABLE 4. US domestic and foreign workers in US consumption by skill-level (as percent of all domestic and foreign employment, respectively, embodied in US consumption).

	1995	2000	2005	2006	2007	2008	Change 2008–1995
Domestic workers
Low-skilled (1)	10.9	10.3	10.1	10.1	9.6	9.0	–1.9
Medium-skilled (2)	64.0	62.4	60.9	60.4	60.3	60.1	–3.9
High-skilled (3)	25.1	27.3	29.0	29.6	30.1	30.9	5.8
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100
Foreign workers
Low-skilled (1)	70.6	64.9	63.5	63.3	63.3	62.8	–7.8
Medium-skilled (2)	25.0	29.1	29.7	29.4	29.3	29.5	4.5
High-skilled (3)	4.5	6.0	6.8	7.3	7.4	7.7	3.3
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100

Notes: The top part of Table 4 indicates the domestic workers embodied in US consumption and the bottom part indicates the foreign workers embodied in US consumption with percent shares in each case summing to 100. The last column shows the percentage point change in the worker shares of each skill-level between 1995 and 2008.

TABLE 5. Employment footprints and endowments (top part, in thousands of workers), the worker surplus (in thousands of workers and, in parentheses, as percentage of the labor force, middle part), and the self-sufficiency consumption rate (bottom part).

	1995	2000	2005	2006	2007	2008
(1) Employed workers	133,979	147,717	148,903	151,319	152,567	151,743
(2) Unemployed workers	7404	5692	7591	7001	7078	8924
(3) Labor endowment (employed + unemployed)	141,383	153,409	156,494	158,320	159,645	160,667
(4) US employment footprint (using the actual trade structure)	203,037	256,722	282,337	286,191	274,698	264,346
(5) US employment footprint (after efficiency adjustments)	136,379	152,236	155,944	157,909	158,268	157,528
(6) US employment footprint (self-sufficiency case)	135,753	152,547	155,188	157,591	158,065	157,151
Worker surplus (as a share of the labor endowment)
(7) Actual trade structure (no adjustments)	–61,653	–103,314	–125,843	–127,870	–115,053	–103,679
	(–43.6)	(–67.3)	(–80.4)	(–80.8)	(–72.1)	(–64.5)
(8) Actual trade structure (after efficiency adjustments)	5005	1172	550	412	1378	3139
	(3.5)	(0.8)	(0.4)	(0.3)	(0.9)	(2.0)
(9) As in (8) but with a 5% unemployment rate	–2064	–6498	–7275	–7504	–6605	–4894
	(–1.5)	(–4.2)	(–4.6)	(–4.7)	(–4.1)	(–3.0)
(9a) Actual trade structure, –20% bound	–5133	–10,043	–11,248	–11,544	–10,652	–9058
	(–3.6)	(–6.5)	(–7.2)	(–7.3)	(–6.7)	(–5.6)
(9b) Actual trade structure, +20% bound	–19	–4135	–4626	–4811	–3906	–2119
	(–0.0)	(–2.7)	(–3.0)	(–3.0)	(–2.4)	(–1.3)
(9c) Actual trade structure, no skills disaggregation.	–578	–4709	–4892	–5128	–4218	–2455
	(–0.4)	(–3.1)	(–3.1)	(–3.2)	(–2.6)	(–1.5)
(9d) as in 9c, but using value added per worker	–1144	–6368	–6113	–6838	–5848	–3966
	(–0.8)	(–4.2)	(–3.9)	(–4.3)	(–3.7)	(–2.5)
(10) Self-sufficiency case	5630	861	1307	729	1580	3516
	(4.0)	(0.6)	(0.8)	(0.5)	(1.0)	(2.2)
(11) As in (10) but with a 5.0% unemployment rate	–1439	–6809	–6518	–7187	–6403	–4517
	(–1.0)	(–4.4)	(–4.2)	(–4.5)	(–4.0)	(–2.8)
(12) Self-sufficiency consumption rate	98.7	96.8	96.0	96.0	96.5	96.6

Notes: (3) = (1) + (2); (7) = (3) – (4) and 100×[(3) – (4)]/(3); (8) = (3) – (5) and 100×[(3) – (5)]/(3); (10) = (3) – (6) and 100×[(3) – (6)]/(3); (12) = 100×[(1)/(6)]. 9a–9d are sensitivity checks related to the baseline results in 9 with 5% unemployment. In 9a foreign workers are assumed to be 20% more efficient relative to US workers than in the baseline case (using a wages proxy); in 9b foreign workers are assumed to be 20% less efficient relative to US workers than in the baseline case (using a wages proxy); in 9c wage rates are used to proxy labor productivity at the country/industry level only (not at the skill-level); and in 9d labor productivities are based on value added per worker (including capital compensation) at the country/industry level only (not at the skill-level).

TABLE 6. US imports of Chinese workers (in thousands of workers).

	1995	2000	2005	2006	2007	2008	Change 2008–1995
In thousands of Chinese workers
No efficiency adjustments	25,562	29,574	45,172	46,337	43,641	37,607	12,046
Including efficiency adjustments	812	1019	1939	2149	2341	2469	1657
As percent share of US employment footprint
No efficiency adjustments	12.6	11.5	16.0	16.2	15.9	14.2	1.6
Including efficiency adjustments	0.6	0.7	1.2	1.4	1.5	1.6	1.0

Note: The raw numbers before efficiency adjustments are the same as in Table 2(A,B).

TABLE 7. Exports of US workers by destination country (in thousands of workers).

	1995	2000	2005	2006	2007	2008	Change 2008–1995
China	232	280	459	548	640	780	548
Mexico	513	945	666	701	736	737	224
India	65	75	146	187	219	232	167
Great Britain	459	554	500	591	645	602	143
Canada	1105	1200	1177	1203	1260	1243	138
Rest	7499	6605	5903	6340	6991	7275	–224
Total	9873	9659	8850	9570	10,491	10,869	996

Notes: The number of US workers embodied in foreign consumption of the country in each row (in thousands). The last column shows the absolute change between 1995 and 2008. Note that the table provides a disaggregation of the total exports of US workers, also shown in the last row in Table 3, by country.